FERMILAB-PUB-16-523 ACCEPTED !"#$%&'()&*+,-.&/,0.0"1)23-4+)54)&!67),+8)5.&3.&9:; Vitaly!S.!Pronskikh! Fermi!National!Accelerator!Laboratory,!Batavia,!USA! <5.,0=>4.+05& E-36,!an!experiment!,-!small!angle!proton-proton!scattering9!began!testing!equipment!in!the!National Accelerator!Laboratory’s!newl'!achieved!100-GeV!beam!on!February!12,!1972,!marking!the!beginning!of NAL’s!experimental!program.!This!experiment9!which!drew!collaborators!from!NAL9!Joint!Institute!for Nuclear! Research! (JINR! a$! Dubna,! USSR),! the! University! of! Rochester! (Rochester,! New! YorkV! and Rockefeller!University!(New!York!City)!was!significant!not!only!as!a!milestone!in!Fermilab’s!history!but!also as!%!model!of!cooperation!between!the!East!and!West!at!a!time!when!Cold!War!tensions!still!ran!high.!An examination!of!the!origin,!operation,!a-H!resoluti,-!of!E-?@!and!th2!chain!of!experiments!it!spawned reveals!the!complex!interplay!oO!science!and!politics!tha$!drove!these!experiments!as!well!as!seed.!of!the megascience!paradig3!that!has!come!to!dominate!high-energy!physi6.!research!since!the!1970s. !67),+8)5.&3()3=&0?&@AB& Quantum!chromodynamics!(QCD)! only! bega-! t,! emerge! whe-! asymptotic! freedom! was! discusseH! by! David!Gross,!Frank!Wilczek19!and!David!Politzer2!in!the!early!seventies,!when!E36!was!already!underway)! Despite!the!fact!that!QCU!is!currentl'!a!standard!tool!fo+!the!calculation!of!hadron!scattering!amplitudes,! its! application! to! the! study! of! many! processes! measured! at! high-energy! accelerators! is! still! quite! complicated)! Examples! are! such! seemingly! simple! processes! as! small! angle! scattering! of! protons! ,-! protons,! whic0! E-?@! measured.! Basically9! along! with! many! other! important! reactions! with! small! momentu3!transfer9!small!angle!proton-prot,-!scattering!generally!falls!outside!the!grasp!oO!perturbative! QCD3.! Since!the!1970s,!physicists!were!using!the!Tullio!Regge!theory4!to!explain!wha$!is!going!on!in!small!angle! proton-prot,-!scattering)!The!Regge!theory!is!a!phenomenologica&!approach59!which!in!the!1970s!was!not! linked!to!the!quar/!structure!of!the!proton!but!relieH!,-!the!so-called!S-matrix!formalis3!(an!approach! alternativ2!to!QCD,!without!elementary!particles,!which!was!almost!abandoned!sinc2!late!1970s!but!later! resulted!in!wha$!nowadays!is!known!as!string!theory))!In!the!Regge!theory,!to!describe!elastic!proton- prot,-! diffracti,-! at! hig0! energies,! unknow-! scattering! amplitudes! are! replaceH! i-! equations! wit0! structure.! containing! function.! called! Regge! trajectorie.! (or! Reggeons))! Despite! many! theoretical! attempts!undertaken!sinc2!th2!1960s,!ther2!ar2!st#&&!no!consistent!universa&!methods!to!deduce!Reggeons! from!QCD.!Sinc2!19759!theorists!have!developed!certain!approaches!of!limited!scope6,7!tha$!relate!QCD!to! the!leading!Reggeon.!The!leadinC!Reggeon8,99!which!could!effectively!explain!the!diffracti,-!behavior!of! hadrons!as!well!as!equal!co-asymptotic!cro..!section.!for!proton.!and!anti-protons!at!hig0!energies109!was! sometime.! called! the! Pomeron,! after! the! Soviet! theorist,! I.! Pomeranchuk11.! Such! approaches! as! th2! diffractive! scattering! model,! optical! theorem,!a-H! analyticity! were! the! language! useH! by! the! E36! experimentalists!for!dat%!analysis!and!interpretation12,!13.! This manuscript has been authored by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under Contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359 with the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. The!participants!i-!E-?@!and!its!subsequent!chain!of!experiments!did!not!have!to!refe+!to!QCD!o+!the!quark! model!in!their!papers!in!order!to!interpret!their!results.!!In!his!PhD!thesis!based!on!E-?@!resultsi9!Dan!Gross! deriveH!bonds!from!Quantum!FielH!Theory!a-H!f,E-H!that!they!are!all!satisfieH!by!the!models!used.!The! experimentalists! remember! they! woulH! sometimes! talk! with! theorists! at! lunch! but! diH! not! have! any! routine!guidance!from!them.!As!Dick!Carrigan9!an!E-?@!participant,!recollects,!“we!usually!diH!not!have! much! guidance! from! theory.”! 14! By! its! conclusion,! E-?@! had! produceH! scientifically! valuable! results,! including!its!finding!that!the!ratio!oO!the!real!to!imaginary!pa+$!oO!the!proton-prot,-!scattering!amplitude! became!positive!at!about!?JJ!GeV)!This!resul$!prompteH!considerable!discussi,-!because!it!contradicted! the!accepted!models!of!th2!time15)!! However,!in!the!earliest!days!of!E-?@!ther2!was!another!factor!that!played!%!key!rol2!in!th2!justification!of! the!experiment:!politics.! C4+)5.+?+4&35=&70D+.+43D&405.)6.& The!beginning!of!the!1960s!was!marked!by!not!only!the!firs$!manned!space!flight,!but!als,!a!number!of! political!crises.!Erection!oO!the!Berlin!Wall!completed!the!separation!between!Eastern!and!Western!Blocs! in!1961,!while!the!Cuban!missile!crisis!in!1962!aggravated!tensions!between!Eas$!and!West.!The!West!had! not! yet! fully! recovered! from! the! shock! caused! by! the! launch! oO! Sputnik,! and! the! level! oO! Soviet! technological!developmen$!haH!t,!be!reckoned!with.!However,!competition!between!the!blocs,!which! extended!to!science,!was!balanced!by!an!essential!desire!t,!cooperate)!For!example,!the!year!1969!was! marked!by!signs!of!successful!scientific!collaboration!betwee-!the!East!a-H!the!West!i-!the!fielH!of!plasma! physics:! %! group! from! Culham! Laboratory,! Ud! reported! successful! measurements! of! th2! electron! temperature!in!a!tokamak!a$!the!Kurchatov!Institute,!USSR16)!! Particl2!accelerators!constituted!another!domai-!in!which!the!US!and!the!Soviets!haH!long!gone!head!to! head.!Which!country!could!boast!the!highest!energy!particle!accelerator!in!the!world?!Historian!Audra! Wolfe!wrote!about!that!period:!“The!United!States!might!have!lost!the!race!to!put!the!first!satellite!into! space,!but!it!would!wage!a!fierce!battle!to!produce!the!most!Ph.D.’s,!the!most!Nobel!laureates,!and!the! biggest!particle!accelerators.”17!! In!1949,!four!years!after!World!War!II,!%!synchrocyclotron!capable!of!accelerating!proton.!to!560!MeVii,18! was!built!fo+!the!Institute!of!Nuclear!Problems!of!Soviet!Academy!of!Sciences!in!the!city!of!Dubna9!located! about!L!hours!by!train!north!of!Moscow)!The!Join$!Institute!fo+!Nuclea+!Research!(JINRV!would!be!founded! at!Dubn%!in!1956!(the!names!“JINR”!and!“Dubna”!have!ofte-!bee-!useH!interchangeably!since!then))! However,!the!Cosmotr,-!at!the!US’s!Brookhave-!National!Laboratory!at!Long!Island,!New!York!surpassed! this!record!in!1953!when!it!started!to!produce!3-GeV!beams19)!Shortly!afterwards,!in!1954,!Lawrenc2! Berkeley!National!Laboratory!also!broke!the!GeV!barrier!with!its!6.L!GeV!Bevatron20.!The!Soviet!Union! could!not!stay!away!from!the!race,!a-H!i-!1957!their!newly!built!accelerator9!JINR’s!Synchrophasotron,! reached!a!record!oO!10!GeV21.!The!US,!not!to!be!outdone,!built!the!12.]!GeV!ZG(!at!Argonne!National! Laborator'!near!Chicago!(A.!Sessle+!evaluates!the!latte+!two!as!“th2!competition!between!Argonn2!and! Dubna!to!build!the!highest!enerC'!proton!accelerator!(th2!ZGS!and!th2!Synchro-phasotron).”)22! Soon!afterwards9!in!19599!CERN!surpassed!the!prot,-!accelerati,-!record!by!reaching!L]!GeV!with!its! Proton! Synchrotron239! and! a! year! later! the! palm! was! again! in! the! US! when! the! Alternating! Gradient! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! i!D.!Gross,!PhU!Thesis,!!"#$%&'()*+",%,)-./0)1-2! ii!Because!of!secrecy,!first!ope-!publications!appeareH!ca!1956,!whe-!the!accelerator!energy!haH!bee-!elevateH!t,! @_J!MeV.! Synchrotron!at!Brookhaven!achieved!30!GeV!prot,-!beams24.!Unwilling!to!back!down,!the!Sovie$!Union! planned!to!create!a!new!record-breaking!accelerator,!this!tim2!at!the!Institute!fo+!High!Energy!Physics! (IHEPV!at!Protvino!near!Serpukhov!(called!Serpukhov!in!the!documents!of!the!time))!IHEP!was!%!USSR! national! laboratory! about! L! hours! by! train! south! of! Moscow! and! only! about! 150! miles! from! Dubna)! Scientists!at!JINR!adjusted!thei+!plans!to!form!a!use+!group!and!do!experiments!at!IHEP)!However,!since! JINR! was! an! international! institution! founded! by! the! Eastern! Bloc! countries! Albania,! Bulgaria,! Czechoslovakia,!East!Germany,!Hungary,!Poland,!Romania,!a-H!the!USSR,!along!with!China,!Mongolia,! North!Korea,!and!Vietnam!and!organized!according!to!principles!similar!to!thos2!of!CERN9!it!could!not! easily!transfer!common!resources!to!a!national!laboratory!(IHEP)!without!raising!objections!among!its! members25)!! In!1965,!China!(one!of!the!JINR!founders)!withdrew!from!membership)!One!of!the!complaints!that!drove! this!move,!as!expressed!by!the!Chinese!representative!a$!the!XII!session!oO!the!JINR!Scientific!Council!and! documenteH! i-! the! JINS! archives9! was! that! JINR! approved! the! transfe+! oO! resources! to! IHEP! without! consulting!member-countrie.!outside!the!Soviet!Union9!which!could9!the!Chinese!representative!feared,! make!JINR!“end!up!losing!its!shirt.”26!Another!allegation!was!tha$!JINR!refused!requests!by!responsible! representatives!oO!the!participating!countries!fo+!permission!to!inspect!the!institute’s!reactor!park9!while! US!visitors!“were!allowed!to!walk!around!th2!entir2!institution!without!supervision!fo+!many!hours!and! take!pictures,”!27!!often!accompanied!by!its!highest!officials.!At!the!height!of!the!ColH!War9!therefore9!JINR! appeared!to!be!committed!to!cooperation!with!the!US,!reaffirming!its!status!as!an!“international!oasisa! within!the!USSR.!! Construction!of!the!IHEP!accelerator9!U-70,!was!completed!in!1967!and!the!proton!beam!reached!76!GeV.! The!high-energy!leadership,!at!least!in!terms!of!which!lab!had!th2!highest!energy!beams,!returned!to!the!