KENNEDY, ROBERT, Ed.D. Debating School Choice in North Carolina: The Rise of Private School Vouchers. (2019) Directed by Dr. Craig Peck. 241 pp. Private school voucher programs are part of what proponents call the “school choice” movement, which aims to increase educational opportunities for students. The concept of school choice is not without controversy, especially with regards to private school vouchers. While voucher programs have existed in the United States since the 1700s, they did not come into prominence until the passage of the Milwaukee Parent Choice Program in 1990. North Carolina passed two voucher laws in 2013 and numerous states across the country now have some type of voucher program embedded without their public education system. The goal of this dissertation was to study the historical development and contemporary status of the voucher trend while also closely examining North Carolina’s voucher law and analyzing the factors that led to its passage in 2013. This study provides a historical overview of vouchers in the United States, as well as a detailed review of the literature surrounding private school vouchers. The history of vouchers in the United States can largely be divided into three time frames: the earliest voucher programs from 1776 to 1925, the passage of voucher laws aimed at evading desegregation mandates from 1950 to 1989, and the rise of modern voucher programs from 1990 to present day. My review of the literature revealed eight overarching voucher concepts. These eight themes include (a) academic achievement, (b) free-market competition, (c) individual parental school choice, (d) racial segregation, (e) funding and state budget issues, (f) targeting at-risk and disadvantaged student populations, (g) oversight and accountability, and (h) church-state separation and other legal concerns. I applied these concepts to the information I gathered while examining over 130 documents published by two of North Carolina’s most significant think-tanks, NC Policy Watch (NCPW) and the John Locke Foundation (JLF). I utilized specific coding techniques to identify the major themes found within these documents, which allowed me to analyze more closely how North Carolina’s voucher law came into existence. I concluded my dissertation by assessing the impact of vouchers more broadly and offering specific recommendations for policymakers regarding some of the political and social issues that need further consideration. DEBATING SCHOOL CHOICE IN NORTH CAROLINA: THE RISE OF PRIVATE SCHOOL VOUCHERS by Robert Kennedy A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education Greensboro 2019 Approved by Craig Peck Committee Chair © 2019 Robert Kennedy I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Lindsey, who has offered unwavering support and encouragement throughout this entire process. It is difficult to be the spouse of a high school principal, especially one in graduate school, but you have been right beside me every step of the way. Reaching the culmination of this journey would not have been possible without the sacrifices you made along the way. This achievement is not mine; it belongs to us both, because I could not have done this without you. ii APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation, written by Robert Kennedy, has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Committee Chair Craig Peck Committee Members Carl Lashley Kathy Hytten February 22, 2019 Date of Acceptance by Committee February 22, 2019 Date of Final Oral Examination iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my Committee Chair, Dr. Craig Peck, for his guidance and encouragement. You helped me build a plan for how to construct my dissertation and you provided timely, pointed, and helpful feedback every step of the way. Thank you for your wisdom, flexibility, and attention to detail. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Kathy Hytten and Dr. Carl Lashley. It has been an honor working with you through this process. Dr. Hytten, you were the first to encourage me to think “outside the box” as I was considering how to approach my dissertation. Your guidance during the early stages of this process was vital; thank you for your support. Dr. Lashley, I have learned so much through the many classes I have taken with you. Thank you for the mentorship you have provided over the last several years. Finally, I would like to thank all of the professors and instructors who have been a part of my journey as a graduate student at UNC-Greensboro. In addition to Dr. Peck, Dr. Hytten, and Dr. Lashley, it has also been a privilege to learn from Dr. Anne Davis, Dr. Brian Clarida, Dr. Camille Wilson, Dr. Gay Citty, Dr. Kim Kappler Hewitt, Dr. Larry Coble, Dr. David Ayers, and Dr. Aaron Woody. Thank you for holding high expectations for my learning while also understanding the obligations of my personal and professional life. I have had nothing but positive experiences with every member of this faculty during my 8-year journey at UNC-Greensboro. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 Background ..................................................................................................3 What are Vouchers? .........................................................................4 Similar School Choice Programs .....................................................5 Purpose .........................................................................................................6 Research Questions ......................................................................................8 Methodology ................................................................................................9 Theoretical Framework ..............................................................................13 Vouchers and Social Justice Theory ..............................................13 Vouchers and Critical Theory ........................................................16 Summary and Conclusion ..............................................................18 Researcher Subjectivities ...........................................................................19 Significance................................................................................................20 Outline for the Study ..................................................................................22 II. THE HISTORY OF VOUCHERS IN THE UNITED STATES ........................25 The Roots of Vouchers: America’s Earliest Voucher Proposals and Policies (1776-1925) .............................................................................26 Early Voucher Proposals and Educational Choice Philosophies ...............................................................................27 Adam Smith .......................................................................27 Thomas Paine .....................................................................28 Thomas Jefferson ...............................................................28 William Seward .................................................................29 John Stuart Mill..................................................................29 Town-tuitioning in Vermont and Maine ........................................30 The significance of education in early New England governments ..................................................................31 Town-tuitioning laws are passed in Vermont and Maine .............................................................................32 Vouchers in Vermont and Maine today .............................32 v Public Funding for Catholic Education: Anti-Immigration and Blaine Amendments ............................................................33 Educational politics and Blaine Amendments ...................33 Anti-immigrant fervor ........................................................34 Effects of the Blaine Amendment ......................................35 The Oregon Compulsory Education Law ......................................35 Brown v. Board and the Rise of Vouchers in America (1950–1989) ........36 The 1950s and 1960s: Voucher Proposals and Tuition Grants Emerge in the South .......................................................37 Southern leaders prepare for the Brown decision ..............38 Milton Friedman and “The Role of Government in Education” .....................................................................38 Little Rock and the fight against desegregation .................39 North Carolina and the Pearsall Plan .................................40 Louisiana initiates tuition grants ........................................41 Prince Edward County, Virginia ........................................41 The 1970s and 1980s: Federal Involvement Increases and Experimental Programs Emerge ................................................43 The Office of Economic Opportunity studies vouchers .........................................................................43 A voucher experiment in Alum Rock, California ..............44 The New Hampshire Voucher Project ...............................44 “A Nation at Risk” and the call for education reform .......45