”’Freedom, Democracy and the Rule of Law’ : The Debate in Great Britain around the Return of Hong Kong to China, 1992-1997” Lori Maguire To cite this version: Lori Maguire. ”’Freedom, Democracy and the Rule of Law’ : The Debate in Great Britain around the Return of Hong Kong to China, 1992-1997”. Lori Maguire. Foreign Policy Discourse in the United Kingdom and the United States in the ”New World Order”, Cambridge Scholars, pp.138-161, 2009. hal-00606541 HAL Id: hal-00606541 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00606541 Submitted on 6 Jul 2011 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. PART II RELATIONS WITH FORMER COLD WAR PLAYERS 2 Chapter Six CHAPTER SIX “FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY AND THE RULE OF LAW”: THE DEBATE IN GREAT BRITAIN AROUND THE RETURN OF HONG KONG TO CHINA, 1992-1997 LORI MAGUIRE On 30 June 1997, Hong Kong, Britain‟s last major colony, returned to China, marking the effective end of the long history of the British Empire.1 But the word “return” tells us a great deal about how Hong Kong‟s fate differed from that of other imperial possessions. All the others had become “independent” and U.K. policy had been to ensure that they received preparation and training in establishing a political system that reflected British values–even if that system did not always last long. Chris Patten, the last governor of Hong Kong, described this process in both admiring and ironic tones: Overall, nevertheless, it is not a bad story: men and women infused with the values of 19th century liberalism trying to do their best, installing democracy, training civil servants, policemen and soldiers, establishing independent courts, entrenching civil liberties. In one country after another, the whole constitutional module was wheeled out one sultry southern night, mounted on its launching pad, and, as the midnight hour struck and the brass bands played a baptismal anthem, blasted off into outer space.2 But this one-size-fits-all module could not work in the case of Hong Kong for it was being “returned”; there was a “handover” to China–a nation not renowned for its record on human rights. Paradoxically, the civil service, police and independent courts already existed, as did a very real demand for democracy on the part of the population but there were very real fears that these elements would not survive the handover. Unlike a number of other colonies, Hong Kong had never preoccupied British domestic opinion very much. As John Darwin has noted: “Neither politicians of the day nor historians since have been tempted to argue that possession of Hong Kong was incompatible with Britain‟s European Great Britain and Hong Kong 3 destiny or the achievement of economic and social modernisation at home.”3 Very little academic work on Hong Kong appeared in the U.K. before the 1980s, and it was largely ignored in the United States and elsewhere.4 So it only figured significantly in British political discourse at the end of its time as a colony.5 Debate in Britain about the handover centred on two areas. First, the question of democracy and human rights which preoccupied much of the press and most lawmakers. The other major subject of debate was that of immigration. Because the people of Hong Kong worried about their future under Chinese rule, many of them sought to leave. As the familiar colonial power, Britain was the first choice for many of these and this fact would shape British discourse and policy on the question. Interestingly enough, there was very little difference between the parties on either of these two subjects. With very few dissenting voices, they all agreed on the need to support the reforms of Chris Patten. And, once again with few dissenting voices (but one of these was Michael Howard, Home Secretary from 1993 to 1997) basic agreement existed on immigration policies. Patten summarised the situation in his memoirs: If Britain was to deny any moral obligation to Hong Kong that raised issues of race (and this was the real purport of its policy on nationality and passports), it clearly recognized its duty to defend Hong Kong‟s bonds to the economic and political values that had shaped it and that defined its difference from the rest of China. From the outset in 1982 of its negotiations with China on Hong Kong‟s future, Britain made plain its commitment to the maintenance of capitalism and freedom in the territory.6 Although there was a difference in emphasis between the parties, almost everyone agreed that Britain‟s last major act of decolonization should be conducted with dignity and honour–which meant bequeathing to Hong Kong a legacy of “freedom, democracy and the rule of law”, as Chris Patten put it–whatever China‟s objections might be.7 To begin with, let us briefly examine the history of the return of Hong Kong. Although the United Kingdom had an internationally recognised title to Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula, most of the rest of the territory was held under a 99 year lease from China, which expired in 1997. During the premiership of Thatcher, the government realised that they had to tackle the issue of the future of Hong Kong. Given the relative strength of Britain and China at the time, the former had no choice but to negotiate and try to get the best deal possible for its colony. By this time, Deng Xiaoping had embarked on his economic reforms and many people in the West were optimistic about the future of China. They hoped that, as 4 Chapter Six the economy developed so would political liberty. Indeed, the British were, on the whole, satisfied with the Joint Declaration, signed in 1984, that enshrined the concept of “one country, two systems”–Hong Kong would be part of China but as a special administrative region for fifty years and would enjoy considerable independence. This principle was given shape in the Basic Law, promulgated in 1990, which became the constitutional document of Hong Kong after its transfer. In June 1989 the Chinese government violently repressed pro- democracy demonstrators at Tiananmen Square. The event traumatised much of the population of Hong Kong who, quite understandably, worried about their own future. Numerous protests took place there and strong calls for democracy developed in the colony. Indeed, London had been singularly lax in introducing self-government into Hong Kong: few people possessed the right to vote and all of the colony‟s governors had been civil servants appointed by London without local consultation. Of course, the British could justify this democratic deficit: chiefly because of their fear of how the Chinese government would react. Still, the British government had declared in 1984 that they would “build up a firmly-based, democratic administration in Hong Kong in the years between now and 1997” but in reality did little about this.8 Added to this, as we shall see, a major reform of British citizenship in 1981 had deprived most people in the colony of full British nationality and thus the right of abode in the United Kingdom. By the late 1980s, this, plus the governmental reluctance to put into effect democratic reforms, had caused many people in Hong Kong to lose confidence in London. In such circumstances, most British leaders felt they had to make an attempt to remedy these deficiencies and try to provide some form of future protection to Hong Kong. John Major, recently appointed Foreign Secretary and soon-to-be Prime Minister, described the situation as follows: Before Tiananmen Square it was possible to be optimistic. After it, trust was shattered. A mood of near despair gripped the territory. Its stock exchange fell 30%, and business investment was held back.9 For this reason, Major decided to keep a previously scheduled meeting with Qian Qichen, the Chinese Foreign Minister, a few weeks after the massacre, as he felt that cancelling it would only hurt Hong Kong. He received criticism in the British press for this which, like most of the western media, became more hostile to China after Tiananmen Square. In September 1991, Major, now Prime Minister, became the first important Western leader to visit Beijing since the massacre. He did so to discuss the construction of a new airport in Hong Kong which the Chinese Great Britain and Hong Kong 5 had been blocking. The visit also received much criticism in the British media and its only tangible result was a “Memorandum of Understanding” on the new airport which, it was hoped, would clear Chinese obstacles to its construction.10 Furthermore, at around the same time, on 17 September, Legislative Council elections were held in Hong Kong and the democrats got 16 of 18 seats while no pro-China candidate won. However, Governor Wilson failed to appoint any of the victorious democrats to the Executive Council, which functioned as his cabinet. Although only 39.2% of voters actually cast their ballots, the result showed much support for democracy and the governor looked out of touch.11 These factors all seem to have weighed on Major who decided, with the accord of Douglas Hurd, the Foreign Secretary, to replace the current governor with a heavyweight politician.