City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 5-2019 Semiotic and Discursive Displays of Tamazight Identity on Facebook: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Revitalization Efforts in Post-Revolutionary Tunisia Soubeika Bahri The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/3098 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] SEMIOTIC AND DISCURSIVE DISPLAYS OF TAMAZIGHT IDENTITY ON FACEBOOK: A SOCIOLINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF REVITALIZATION EFFORTS IN POST-REVOLUTIONARY TUNISIA by SOUBEIKA (WAFA) BAHRI A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Linguistics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York. 2019 ©2019 SOUBEIKA (WAFA) BAHRI All Rights Reserved ii Semiotic and Discursive Displays of Tamazight Identity on Facebook: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Revitalization Efforts in Post-Revolutionary Tunisia. by Soubeika (Wafa) Bahri This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Linguistics in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _________________ _________________________________________ Date Cecelia Cutler Chair of Examining Committee _________________ _________________________________________ Date Gita Martohardjono Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Michael Newman Miki Makihara Lotfi Sayahi THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Semiotic and Discursive Displays of Tamazight Identity on Facebook: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Revitalization Efforts in Post-Revolutionary Tunisia. by Soubeika (Wafa) Bahri Advisor: Cecelia Cutler This dissertation examines the online discourses and semiotic resources employed by the Tunisian Amazigh community in their language and identity revitalization efforts on Facebook in wake of the 2011 Tunisian Revolution. Drawing on insights from discourse-centered online ethnography (Androutsopoulos, 2008), the frameworks of language iconization, fractal recursivity, and erasure (Irvine and Gal, 2000), and the tactics of intersubjectvity proposed by Bucholtz and Hall (2004), I argue that Tunisian Imazighen (sing. Amazigh) use Facebook to challenge hegemonic language ideologies that erase Tamazight. I propose the notion of counter- erasure as an ideological process used by Amazigh activists to contest Arabo-Islamic ideology, pan-Arabism, and Arabicization policies that pushed Tunisian Tamazight to a status of endangerment. Counter-erasure is also a means to reproduce an oppositional-ideological language discourse that corresponds to the hegemonic discourses of linguistic and cultural exclusiveness. The analysis is based on longitudinal observations of the Facebook accounts of nine Tunisian Amazigh activists collected between 2016 and 2018, and is supplemented by 23 interviews and an online quantitative language survey among Tunisians. The analysis shows how discourse, multimodality, performativity, multilingualism, and multi-orthography are used iv semiotically to construct Amazigh identity and to assert the legitimacy and vitality of Tamazight. By examining these semiotic practices, this dissertation demonstrates how computer-mediated discourse (CMD) on Facebook provides a space for language ideologies to be disputed, reproduced and reversed - even in the face of very low rates of language proficiency and the endangered status of the language. The dissertation adds to an existing body of research on the sociolinguistics of digital communication with emphasis on the impact of Facebook interactions on language revitalization (Paricio-Martín & Martínez-Cortés, 2010), language activism (Feliciano-Santos 2011, Davis 2013), identity construction (Georgalou 2015), bi/multilingualism (Androutsopoulos 2008, 2013; Cutler & Røyneland 2018), and minority languages (Jones & Uribe-Jongbloed, 2013). Facebook is shown to be a key factor in the emergence of an indigenous Amazigh discourse in the years since the 2010-2011 Tunisian Revolution. In the process of identity negotiation, Facebook offers huge semiotic potential for triggering ideological shifts in how language and identity are conceived by Tunisians. The dissertation concludes that computer mediated discourse on Facebook can be a catalyst for linguistic and social change in the case of Tunisian Tamazight and beyond. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with tremendous gratitude and appreciation that I acknowledge the generous support and invaluable help of my supervisor, Dr. Cecelia Cutler. This dissertation would not be possible without her guidance and encouragement throughout the years at CUNY-The Graduate Center. Ever since I met Cece in summer 2010 when I was just starting my application for this PhD program, Dr. Cutler has been very supportive of my research and career through her mentor, courses, feedback, and compassion. Cece, words cannot really express how much I owe you for being an exceptional advisor, professor, mentor, and friend. I am also very thankful to the members of my dissertation committee Dr. Michael Newman, Dr. Miki Makihara, and Dr. Lotfi Sayahi who contributed so much to this dissertation through their insightful comments, suggestions, courses, and research. Next, I would to thank you the Tunisian Amazigh community and the participants of Tunisian Tamazight revitalization project for allowing me to observe their Facebook pages and to interview them. I especially thank Nouri Nemri for his constant help and support since the beginning of my research journey. Many thanks to Illyes Rouine, Rafiq Khemira, Houcine Belgheeth,, Muhammed Khalfallah, Hajer Barbana, Slah Mimoun, A‘arbia El-Bez, Hammadi Muhammed, Khalid khemira and all the Amazigh men and women who accepted to participate in my research and to share their views and approaches to the question of Tunisian Tamazight either in the interviews or during our private Facebook chats. Thank you to the Faculty and students of the Linguistics Department at CUNY-The Graduate Center who have contributed immensely to my growth as a linguist and researcher. My special thanks is for Dr. Gita Martohardjono, Dr. Juliette Blevins, and Nishi Bissoundial. I also wish to thank Dr. Gregory Guy and John Singler from the Department of Linguistics at NYU for vi helping me shape my research through the framework of Sociolinguistics. The foundation of my linguistics training first started with Dr. Janet Bing, Dr. Joanne Scheibman, Dr. Bridget Anderson, and Dr. Alla Zareva at the Department of English and Applied Linguistics at Old Dominion University in Virginia. For that I would like to thank each of them for their mentorship and for inspiring me to pursue a PhD degree with focus on Sociolinguistics. I owe special debts of thanks to Dr. Suzanne Thomson. Without her most vital help, guidance, and empowerment, I, truly, would not have made it to America, pursued graduate studies, or become the person I am today. Susie, because I know that you will read this dissertation one day, I would like you to know that you are not only my role model for your intellect, class, and compassion, but also that person in the following idiom: ―People say best friends are hard to find; That‘s because the best is already mine‖. At last, I would like to thank the love of my life, Raja (Dr. Senthilraja Singaravelu), for being in my life. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................………………x LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. ………………xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .........................................................................………………1 1.1 Research motivation..................................................................................………………1 1.2 Background ...............................................................................................………………6 CHAPTER 2: TAMAZIGHT IN ITS HISTORICAL AND LINGUISTICS CONTEXT ...……14 2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................………………14 2.2 Etymology ............................................................................................………………15 2.3 Typology ..............................................................................................………………17 2.3.1 Tamazight Afro-Asiatic origin .............................................................………………17 2.3.2 Tamazight languages: classifications ...................................................………………20 2.3.3 Tunisian Tamazight Sub-Classifications .............................................………………22 2.4 Tunisian linguistic landscapes across history: Tamazight in contact ..………………27 2.4.1. Pre-Islamic history: Tamazight first contact with other languages ......………………28 2.4.2. Post-Islamic History: Tamazight contact with Arabic .........................………………30 2.4.3. Post- French occupation: Arabization continues .................................………………32 2.4.4. Post-Revolution 2010-2011 .................................................................………………36 2.5. Conclusive remarks..............................................................................………………38 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK