This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA. German Identity in Hungary from 1526 Nicole Hein GERM 495 Dr. Dailey-O’Cain April 15, 2018 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Habsburg-Hungarian Relations 1.1. Linguistic Considerations 1.2. Political Considerations 1.3. Confessional Affiliation 2. Habsburgian Persecution 2.1. Leopold I 2.2. Maria Theresa 2.3. Joseph II 3. The Rise of Nationalism 3.1. Magyarization 3.2. Imagined Communities 3.3. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise 4. Hungary in the Early 20th Century 4.1. The First World War 4.2. The Interwar Period 5. Identity and Belonging in Hungary to the Mid-20th Century 5.1. Economic Status 5.2. Language 5.3. Education 5.4. Religion 6. Hungary During the Second World War 6.1. National Socialism 6.2. The Post-War Period 6.3. The Many Republics 7. German-Hungarian Identity after 1990 7.1. Identity According to Census Data 8. Conclusion Bibliography 1 Seit Stephan hat die deutsche Hand Gar viel gewirkt mit Fleiß Und in dem schönen Ungarland Floß gar viel deutscher Schweiß. Und gegen Feindesübermacht Da brennt auch deutsches Glut Und in der wilden Türkenschlacht Floß auch viel deutsche[s] Blut. - “T.G.S.” In 1526, the Ottomans defeated the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács, annexing a large portion of the Hungarian lands and leaving only the northwestern region to its own devices. During the battle, the Hungarians suffered the loss of their king, Louis II, who died while fleeing.1 Having no legitimate heirs, the Hungarian nobility elected the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand I to rule what remained of the crownlands, beginning a four-hundred year Habsburg reign. Due to its location in Europe, the crown lands of Hungary had long functioned as a buffer between opposing parties and their ideals;2 the Habsburg Empire appeared as only the most recent in a long line of great powers fighting to establish control of the land. The Habsburg Monarchy is perhaps the most noteworthy of them all; to maintain control of Hungary it warred 1 Andrew Wheatcroft, The Habsburgs: Embodying Empire(London: Penguin, 1996), 91. 2 See Zoltán Dörnyei, Kata Csizér, and Nóra Németh, Motivation, Language Attitudes, and Globalisation: A Hungarian Perspective(Clevedon [England]: Multilingual Matters, 2006), 1. 2 not only against rival powers, but also against its own subjects. The Habsburgs brought major reforms to education, language, politics, and religion in Hungary as the Monarchy attempted to place its subjects within its ever-growing empire. After the retreat of the rival Ottomans in the 18th century, the Habsburgs encouraged the migration of German speakers to the crown lands in order to settle regions previously occupied by the Ottomans, leading to a large influx of German speakers that, together with working-class Slavs and Croats, ultimately turned the Hungarians into a minority in their own Kingdom. The Hungarian subjects and their Hungaro-German counterparts, however, did not easily fit the mould that the Habsburgs had created, due in part to the fact that this mould often changed according to the Emperors’ priorities. Many of the often oppressive reforms caused great discontent among the Hungarian and Hungaro-German subjects alike — oftentimes leading to revolt and revolution — but also allowed the Hungaro-Germans opportunities to determine their place in relation to the Monarchy and the Kingdom of Hungary. The contradictory policies of the 17th century provide a good example: Germans enjoyed opportunities that arose from Leopold I’s anti-Hungarian bias, yet suffered along with ethnic Hungarians when he ignored their right of religious freedom and oppressed and persecuted Protestants throughout the Kingdom.3 Thus, a “German” identity formed that was founded on shared hardship in Hungary and became increasingly distant from the Austrian Habsburgs. With whom, then, does the Hungaro-German migrant’s identity align most? How did they perceive themselves in relation to the German-speaking Habsburgs and the post-partition countries of Austria and Germany? Like all identities, the German migrant’s notion of 3 Robert A. Kann, and Zdenek V. David, The Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 1526-1918(Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1984), 136. 3 “Germanness” fluctuated from the moment of its inception in Hungary under Habsburgian rule and as new German-speaking countries emerged at the close of the First World War. The following thesis will explore how the various influences of culture, language, and religion of the past five hundred years affected German-speaking Hungarian identity in relation to other Germans and their Hungarian neighbours. 1. Habsburg-Hungarian Relations By the time that they first entered written history in the early 11th century, the Habsburgs were living as courtiers in the Aargau region of what is now Switzerland, their family name derived from the Habichtsburg,a white tower built along a tributary of the Rhine.4 Over the next few centuries and through carefully-planned bethrothels, the Habsburgs established themselves as a powerful German family, becoming Dukes of Austria and heirs with claims to the imperial throne. The German origins of the ruling family provides a starting point from which one can look at the identity of ethnic German migrants to Hungary. Although German-speaking Hungarians have lived in Hungary for over three hundred years, German speakers nevertheless appear alongside Habsburg and German nationalist history due to their ethnic similarity.5 However, to look at the German-speaking Hungarians as German in the ethnic sense only acknowledges their ethnicity and proximity to the rest of the Habsburg Empire and, later, the Third Reich, leading to prescriptive conclusions about identity formation on the basis of ethnic similarities. That the German migrants shared a common ethnicity with the Habsburgs does not necessarily mean that German speakers who lived in Hungary for many 4 Wheatcroft, The Habsburgs,18. 5 John C. Swanson, Introduction to Tanglibe Belonging: Negotiating Germanness in Twentieth -Century Hungary (Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh University Press, 2017), 2. doi: 10.2307/j.ctt1n7qksw.7. 4 centuries protected from direct Habsburg influence identified themselves as “German” or embraced a notion of “Germanness” that was more in line with the Habsburgs than with their Hungarian neighbours. This conclusion creates the idea that German-speaking migrants belong more to German-speaking countries than to Hungary itself.6 1.1 Linguistic Considerations Aside from ethnicity, there are other similarities between the German-speaking migrants and the Habsburgs that make it possible to analyse their connection to each other. Their common language, German, is often used to separate the migrants from the rest of Hungary. Linguistic differences underline speakers’ foreignness outside of the land where the language is spoken by the majority, and the retention of the language in question creates the illusion that common language alone maintains strong connections to the motherland, i.e., the land of one’s mother tongue. However, the notion of nationalism on the basis of one’s mother tongue was yet to be realized; additionally, prior to the conception of these ethnic-nationalist connections, Hungary was home to a great variety of ethnic groups and language families. By the time of increased migration under Maria Theresa (r. 1740 – 1780), the Kingdom was quite ethnically diverse, and was made up of a mixture of other nationalities such as Bulgarians, Croats, Germans, Roma, and Slovakians, among others. Neither was German the shared language of use outside of everyday communication; instead, Latin was the language of administration until Joseph II (r. 1765 – 1790; King of Hungary from 1780) implemented its use in 1781. The Hungarian language, Magyar, was the regular language used in conversation, and was spoken by Hungarians and 6 Swanson, Introduction to Tangible Belonging,4. 5 ethnic Germans alike.7 When necessary, the German language and dialects thereof were also used in Hungary, not only among ethnic Germans, but also among non-native speakers.8 The language situation in Hungary during this time period is evidence that simply speaking a particular language or a dialect in central Europe did not necessarily entail “a conscious loyalty to a larger ethnic or national grouping.”9 Additionally, often low-class peasants, German-speaking emigrants could not effectively communicate with other migrants due to the sheer variety of dialects that had followed them from their homeland. This lack of mutual intelligibility not only made it difficult to communicate in everyday life, but it rendered impossible the formation of a unified Hungarian branch of the German “nation” based solely on linguistic similarities. In fact, one scholar in particular has described the German-speaking communities of this time as “examples of disorder” and not — as one tends to think about anything that includes large numbers of German speakers — as examples of superb organisation.10 It also cannot be said that Joseph II encouraged solidarity among German-speaking Hungarians by introducing German as the language of administration. This reform came too late to unify German speakers simply on the basis of language use; by this time, Magyar nationalism had already taken root, juxtaposing Habsburgian absolutism, and German migrants stood with 7 RJW Evans, “Maria Theresa in Hungary,” in Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, C. 1683-1867 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006): 26. 8 See, John C. Swanson, “A Rural World, Before 1918,” in Tangible Belonging: Negotiating Germanness in Twentieth -Century Hungary(Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2017):26. 9 AJP Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918,new ed.(London: H. Hamilton, 1948),264; Gary B.