Preserving Biodiversity As If Life Depends on It ur survival depends on our ability to protect biodiversity. The long historical recognition of the importance of biodiversity in Someone who lived before the advent of cities and ag- national and international law has given insufficient attention to Oriculture would have encountered many more –perhaps natural approaches that avoid harm or uncertainties. Risk-based hundreds more– different species of plants and animals every day. standards in environmental law allow hazards up to limits deemed Chances are they would have met some that are now extinct or “acceptable,” neglecting the availability of alternatives free of nearly so. Bison roamed the prairies –which themselves contained harm. The Organic Foods Production Act establishes a national hundreds of plant species– but also eastern forests. White bears working model for avoiding the reliance on practices and inputs occasionally ranged as far south as the Delaware River. Skies were that introduce hazards and threats to biodiversity at any level. In- darkened for hours or even days at a time by flocks of birds. The stead, the law affirmatively seeks to protect biodiversity as a pre- forest of eastern North America was united by a mycelial mat from cious resource that supports a productive agricultural system and the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. These species were a sustainable environment. part of a community with the humans who lived there –species that humans might eat, or provide food for those they ate, or who How does biodiversity benefit the community? might even eat them. Then and now, members of the commu- nity also interact in more complex ways –microbes in the gut of Biodiversity is literally the diversity of life. From a taxonomical per- humans help digest our food, and microbes in the soil help feed spective, biologists have identified approximately 1.8 million spe- plants. Many of the species that were once a part of daily life for cies on Earth and estimates are that between 80 and 90 percent people are now gone or very rare. They are gone for many rea- of the actual total remain undiscovered or unnamed. (IUCN 2009) sons, but mostly because their homes were turned into farms and Yet, biodiversity is in dire peril. The Earth’s rich biological heri- cities. Many species that enriched the lives of our ancestors are tage of species, communities, and ecosystems, which has evolved no longer here to enrich ours, but it is not just a matter of enrich- across millions of years, is rapidly deteriorating and in many in- ment. Without those species, the communities they supported stances irreversibly disappearing. are crumbling. We see the loss of these communities in the pro- liferation of “invasive species,” climate change, and epidemics of In its most general sense, biodiversity refers to the combination disease. No longer are we simply losing “enrichment” –our own of species that share a defined habitat to form a community. The survival is now at risk. If we are to survive, we must help the com- study of ecology (from the Greek oikos, or household) teaches munity survive –from the bottom up– starting with the soil. that the species of a community continually interact both directly with one another and indirectly through their effect on the non- Organic and chemical-intensive land management feature sharply living (abiotic) environment. For example, a native bee pollinating contrasting approaches to interacting with the biodiversity of the a flower supports biodiversity by facilitating services –fertilization ecosystem in which they operate. This divergence has enormous for the plant, nutrition for the insect– that are essential for their consequences for the sustainability of life. Recognizing that vari- survival and reproduction. Similarly, a lichen may be the first spe- ous land management practices may have different effects on the cies to colonize a rock outcropping, liberating mineral nutrients web of life that makes up the environment is crucial to maintain- that enable others to become established. Each species within the ing the intricate balance and life-sustaining benefits of nature. In biodiversity that shares a habitat contributes to the integrity and this context, local, state, and national land management practices endurance of the community as a whole. and laws, which can play an instrumental role in conserving biodi- versity, often miss the mark and contribute to costly and devastat- More specifically, research strongly indicates that biodiversity ing impacts. promotes productivity, stability, and resilience. In general, com- Vol. 31, No. 4 Winter 2011-12 Pesticides and You Page 13 A quarterly publication of Beyond Pesticides What is Biodiversity? A highlight of the United Nation’s (UN) 1992 Conference on Environment and Development, known as the “Rio Conference,” was the pre- sentation of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which 192 nations and the European Union –though not the United States– have subsequently signed. The Convention defines biological diversity (biodiversity) as “the variability among living organisms from all sources in- cluding terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.” (UN 1992) Biodiversity operates at three distinct levels in natu- ral systems. First, genetic biodiversity exists within ev- ery species. Species must maintain sufficient diversity within their collective gene pool for future generations to adapt. Secondly, species biodiversity represents the collection of different species that co-exist as a com- munity within an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a distinct environmental habitat combining interdependent or- ganisms and non-living elements, such as a coral reef or tall grass prairie. In general, ecosystems with greater biodiversity are better suited to withstand disturbance and to recuperate from adverse impacts. Finally, ecosys- tem biodiversity measures the abundance or variety of adjoining yet subtly self-contained ecosystems within a When many people hear the word “biodiversity,” they think of the tropical rainforest. While rainforests are one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, biodiversity is important larger geographic area. to many types of ecosystems, from rainforests and reefs, to the soil of a farm or backyard turf. munities with greater biodiversity generate more biomass (the teeming with microbial life to a pasture seeded with grasses and combined weight of all organisms), are more resistant to envi- forbs to a mature tropical rainforest. Biodiversity shapes the char- ronmental disturbances, such as drought, and bounce back more acteristics and capacities of every species and creates the condi- quickly after being affected by such disturbances. Mutualistic tions under which all living creatures interact and evolve. relationships, such as the exchange of nutrients that takes place between mycorrhizal fungi in soil and vascular plants growing Most notably, agriculture is both a prime cause and essential rem- nearby, can more efficiently allocate resources and spur overall edy to the biodiversity crisis. Decisions made to use toxic chemi- productivity. cals in land management or food choices in the grocery store ev- ery day are directly connected to the future of biodiversity, and Of most immediate importance, from how food is grown to the the organic choice offers the brightest prospect for a sustainable management of, gardens, lawns and landscapes, parks, forests, future. and rights-of-way, human decisions concerning management practices have a direct impact on biodiversity. In these contexts, Differences in Organic and Chemical-Intensive biodiversity is a balance without the concept of “pest,” as organ- Land Management isms keep each other in check through systems of support and pre- dation, and the habitat ensures nourishment for all living things. The conservation of biodiversity is both a core premise of organic The value of biodiversity as an essential tool cannot be dismissed, land management and a specific requirement of organic crop, since chemical dependency in land management has resulted in livestock, and wild crop certification. This compatibility between organism resistance to synthetic chemicals and increasing costs organic management and biodiversity reflects the primary im- to society in billions of dollars of crop loss, lost pollinators, water portance that the original organic practitioners attached to na- contamination, toxic cleanup, and illness. (Tegtmeier and Duffy ture as the model for successful agriculture. One hundred years 2004; Pimentel 2005) of practice and an increasing body of research have subsequently established that biodiversity can impart advantages in managed Biodiversity is a foundational principle in the organization of com- systems similar to those it does in the wild. Conversely, chemi- munities at all levels, from a spade full of organically managed soil cal-intensive land management practices have moved away from Page 14 Pesticides and You Vol. 31, No. 4 Winter 2011-12 A quarterly publication of Beyond Pesticides treating biodiversity as an integral component of the production erations are held to the same biodiversity standard. process. By targeting individual species –both as commodities to produce and pests to attack– chemical-intensive land manage- The National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) in 2009 approved ment sacrifices the benefits of biodiversity