DO PERCEPTIONS OF OTHER MEN AFFECT ONE’S OWN ENDORSEMENT OF MASCULINITY? By SAMUEL FARLEY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Kansas State University Manhattan, KS 2012 Master of Science in Educational Psychology Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK 2015 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY July, 2018 DO PERCEPTIONS OF OTHER MEN AFFECT ONE’S OWN ENDORSEMENT OF MASCULINITY? Dissertation Approved: Hugh Crethar, Ph.D. Dissertation Adviser Tonya Hammer, Ph.D. Diane Stutey, Ph.D. Randy Hubach, Ph.D. Jennifer Bryd-Craven, Ph.D. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend my sincere gratitude towards my dissertation chair, Hugh Crethar, Ph.D. who provided guidance, encouragement, and much needed external motivation to write and complete this dissertation. I also want to express my appreciation to the various members of my dissertation committee including: Tonya Hammer, Ph.D., Randy Hubach, Ph.D; Diane Stutey, Ph.D., and Jennifer Byrd Craven, Ph.D. whom all provided support in all facets of this study. I would also like to extend my immense gratitude to Joe Currin and Colton Brown who both greatly helped me stay on track with each part of this dissertation and the enormous amount of support and encouragement they provided. Also, I want to extend my deepest thanks to my family, cohort members, and friends who remained supportive and encouraging throughout this entire process. iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Name: SAMUEL FARLEY Date of Degree: JULY, 2018 Title of Study: DO PERCEPTIONS OF OTHER MEN AFFECT ONE’S OWN ENDORSEMENT OF MASCULINITY? Major Field: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Abstract: Numerous articles have established the negative outcomes associated with holding a traditionally masculine ideology (Berger et al., 2005; Descutner & Thelen, 1991; Gale, 1996; Jakupcak, Lisak, & Roemer, 2002; Levant & Wimer, 2014; Santana, Raj, & Decker, 2006). Connell (2005) has speculated that a vocal minority can set the standards of masculinity that a silent or complicit majority follow or must relate too. Few studies have investigated how this process may occur within the area of masculinity. Pluralistic ignorance (the belief that one’s attitudes and behavior differ from others, when this difference does not exist; Boon and Yoshimura, 2014) has been shown when present to affect one’s own behaviors or attitudes (Fabiano, Perkins, Berkowitz, Linkenbach, & Stark, 2003). Casey et al., (2016) have found that men overestimated other men’s adherence to traditional masculine norms. This study investigated this concept to see how perceptions of others beliefs might influence one’s own behavior. This study had two objectives. The first objective was to determine if participants are endorsing pluralistic ignorance when considering their own and others masculine ideology. The second objective was to determine if this, pluralistic ignorance, then predicted conformity to more traditionally masculine norms. The results supported that men do endorse pluralistic ignorance, perceiving other men to hold more traditional masculine norms. The second hypothesis was not supported, but several correlations were found between pluralistic ignorance and conformity to masculine norms subscales. These results are discussed further as well as the implications this has for counseling psychology. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................................................................................3 Masculine Ideology ..................................................................................................3 Multiple Masculinities .............................................................................................5 Pluralistic Ignorance ................................................................................................7 Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................10 Research Questions ................................................................................................11 Hypothesis..............................................................................................................11 III. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................12 Participants .............................................................................................................12 Instruments .............................................................................................................14 Demographics Questionnaire .............................................................................14 Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form ...........................................................14 Pluralistic Ignorance ..........................................................................................15 Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 .................................................15 Right Wing Authoritarianism ............................................................................16 Procedures ..............................................................................................................17 Data analysis ..........................................................................................................17 IV. FINDINGS .............................................................................................................19 Pluralistic Ignorance ..............................................................................................19 Correlational Analysis ...........................................................................................19 Regression Analysis ...............................................................................................21 V. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................22 Discussion ..............................................................................................................22 Limitations .............................................................................................................25 Clinical Implications ..............................................................................................27 Conclusion .............................................................................................................28 v Chapter Page REFERENCES ............................................................................................................30 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................46 Appendix A: Extended Review of Literature ........................................................46 Appendix B: Informed Consent Agreement ..........................................................69 Appendix C: Study Measures ................................................................................71 Appendix D: IRB Approval ...................................................................................78 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants ........................................................13 2: Pluralistic Ignorance Averages .............................................................................19 3: Person Correlation Coefficient Matrix .................................................................20 4: Regression Table...................................................................................................21 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Perceptions of gender play a significant role in the manner in which men and women relate to each other in society (Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, 1994). Such perceptions are learned from numerous sources, spanning from the interpersonal to popular media (Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, 1994). Television, movies, magazines, and so forth serve as an influential socializing force that disseminates cultural ideals and norms of gender (Sigoloff, 2009). Media impacts how we learn about our world and how we interact interpersonally with one another (Creteau & Hoynes, 2002). The looking glass self describes a similar process by which media’s impact on people can be explained as viewing the world as if looking in a mirror and their actions are affected by the expectations they feel are placed upon them (Sigoloff, 2009). Messages within the media help individuals see what is perceived as “normal” and “deviant” behavior within particular societies and therefore what is the idealized image of society’s values and attitudes. Studies looking at how media portrays men find that men are typically depicted in higher status roles such as lawyers and doctors, placed in action or drama roles, appear dominant and violent, and engaging in the use of alcohol and tobacco (Fejes, 1992). Researchers have further concluded that representations of men in the media do not typically deviate from traditional patriarchal concepts of men and masculinity (Children Now, 1999; Fejes, 1992). These portrayals of men have been shown to impact children’s perceptions of men such as children describing men as angry, leaders, problem solvers, in charge, intelligent, and not expressive of emotion (Children now,