Whose Tradition?: Adapting Orthodox Christianity in North America by © Lydia Bringerud A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Folklore Memorial University of Newfoundland May 2019 St. John’s Newfoundland For my Naşa Karin-Irina Doehl, proud feminist and Orthodox Christian, to whom I owe so much. May her memory be eternal. ii Abstract Focusing on three Orthodox Christian communities – St. Paraskeva and St. Luke in Midwestern US, and St. Nicolas in Atlantic Canada – this thesis examines the complex cultural dynamics surrounding Orthodox Christianity in North America. I explore the ways believers, both the Orthodox-born and new converts, negotiate with an ancient faith in a contemporary society where this faith may appear counter-cultural. Building on Leonard Primiano’s (1995) theory of vernacular religion, I propose the concept of vernacular theology to shed light on these processes. Despite the illusion of theology as the exclusive purview of clergy, laypeople exercise interpretive agency to creatively adapt doctrine to their individual life circumstances. Considering the significant role of Church history in the religious choices and experiences of my consultants, I begin with a historical overview of Orthodox Christianity, from its origins in the Roman Empire to the present day, including its path to North America. The themes of empire, romantic nationalism, anti-Westernism, and Communism that have historically shaped this faith are explored specifically in Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine, the home countries of my Orthodox-born participants. I analyze the Orthodox Church’s response to globalization and how this may affect the future of the Church in North America. I further consider encounters between converts and Orthodox-born immigrants within the walls of North American Orthodox churches, examining how Orthodox Christian communities meet the needs of these different groups. I argue that those who convert to Orthodox Christianity create exoteric folklore about ethnicity in terms of those who have cultural connections with the faith. iii In my last two chapters, I address theory and practice in the lives of Orthodox Christians, with specific emphasis on how women navigate this patriarchal faith in a society in dialogue with feminist ideas. Themes include understandings of clerical authority, spiritual obedience, and the interpretive agency of parishioners. I offer a theory of vernacular feminisms, in which women create strategies of empowerment within a patriarchal system. By creating these choices for themselves, they simultaneously subvert and support a system that limits them on the basis of gender. iv Acknowledgements I owe thanks first and foremost to my supervisor, Mariya Lesiv. Thank you for challenging me to be a better thinker and theorist while still being compassionate and encouraging. A sincere thank you to my supervisory committee members—Cory Thorne, and Diane Tye. Your patience and rigorous attention to detail in reading my thesis is greatly appreciated. My doctoral degree would not be possible without the financial support provided by a Graduate Fellowship from Memorial University of Newfoundland. My gratitude extends to the American Folklore Society, where I was able to workshop some of my dissertation chapters. Thank you for providing excellent networking opportunities, but also the minds of so many brilliant folklorists who continue to inspire my research questions. I would like to thank my cohort of fellow grad students in the Folklore Department at Memorial University, especially those who became my roommates. To Noah Morritt, Klara Nichter, John LaDuke, and our “honorary roommates,” ethnomusicologists Maile Graham- Laidlaw and Molly McBride—I learned so much from all of you, not only in our theoretical debates, but also in play. Thank you to Hadi Milanloo and Saeede Niktaab for engaging me with new ideas and challenging me to think outside my own context. Each and every one of you has given me the priceless gift of your friendship, and I am a better folklorist because of it. Kevin Mellis, I thank you for broadening my horizons in the world of Orthodox Christian theology. Because of our conversations, I learned what tremendous breadth of interpretation exists in this tradition. You continue to be an endless font of information, theologian, and friend. v I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to Doris and Dan Weisman, who let me live with them while I did fieldwork. I am also indebted to Brian and Jenifer Pletcher who lent me their car for a week so that I could both work and interview more people. Your kindnesses touched my heart and made this research possible. Thank you so much to the church communities who allowed me into their lives. It was a privilege to interview each and every one of you. This research, and my doctorate, would not be possible without you. You humbled me, challenged me, and above all, allowed me to witness the mysteries and contradictions of the human heart. Thank you for allowing me to interview you. To my best friends, Jenn Osborne, Madeline Daily, and Melanie Rentsch, you have seen the seasons of my growing up. Thank you for letting me cry on your shoulders, dance with you, sing with you, and laugh with you. Thank you for reminding me to go outside and play sometimes. I love you all fiercely. I would like to thank my mother and grandmother for their unflagging support for my research and their interest in the material, including proofreading. Thank you for feeding me, clothing me, letting me borrow your vehicles, and above all, for loving me unconditionally. I don’t know who I would be without you. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my partner, James, for believing in me. Thank you for assuring that I will never starve with your fantastic culinary creations. Thank you for encouraging me to do be artistic and creative as well as analytical. Above all, thank you for loving me through light and shadow. vi Table of Contents Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………...….ii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...iii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………….….v Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………….…..vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………...viii Chapter 1: Introduction………..…………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 2: From Empire to Diaspora: A Brief History of the Orthodox Church………………..38 Chapter 3: Globalization, Identity, & Tradition……………………………………………….....86 Chapter 4: Orthodox Christianity & Community……………………………………………....122 Chapter 5: Orthodox Christianity & Cultural Heritage…………………………………..……..156 Chapter 6: Gender Roles as a Path to Humility………………………………………………...195 Chapter 7: Vernacular Theologies about Gender…………………….………...…………….…235 Chapter 8: Cleanliness is Next to Godliness: A Case Study in Clerical Authority & the Price of Obedience…………………………………………………………………………………..…..266 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...301 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………305 Appendix A: Timeline of Orthodox Christianity……………..………………….……......……331 Appendix B: Glossary of Terms………………………………………………..………………338 vii List of Figures Figures Page Figure 1 Nave of St. Parascheva Romanian Orthodox Church. 25 Figure 2 A priest, deacon, and acolytes in procession at St. Parascheva. 26 Figure 3 Pew Research Center poll of the religious landscape of Central 55 and Eastern Europe. Figure 4 Meme depicting Matthew Heimbach assaulting a counter- 89 protestor with an Orthodox cross at the University of Knoxville in Tennessee. Figure 5 Free speech stone at the University of Knoxville. An Orthodox 89 cross is depicted alongside symbols for the Traditionalist Workers Party and various white power symbols. Figure 6 Matthew Heimbach at the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, 91 Virginia, wearing a t-shirt glorifying Corneliu Codreanu. Figure 7 Blessing the cars at St. Parascheva in the summer of 2015. 96 Figure 8 Icon of Christ crucified and Christ the Good Shepherd on a 169 donated Romanian altar cloth at St. Parascheva. Figure 9 Icon of St. Alexis of Wilkes-Barre on a donated Romanian 169 altar cloth at St. Parascheva. Figure 10 St. Parascheva of Iaşi, on the iconostasis at St. Parascheva. 172 Figure 11 St. Nicholas, in the basement fellowship space at St. Parascheva. 172 Figure 12 St. Herman of Alaska, on the iconostasis at St. Parascheva. 174 Figure 13 Icon of the saints of North America, in the narthex at St. 174 Parascheva Figure 14 Iconostasis at St. Parascheva. 175 Figure 15 The author wearing a headscarf at a Russian Orthodox church in 208 Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Figure 16 Russian and Mongolian women worshipping in the same church 208 in Ulaanbaatar. Figure 17 Archbishop Job serving communion at St. John’s, assisted by 272 two female parishioners. xviii Chapter 1: Introduction This thesis examines how Orthodox Christianity is being adapted in twenty-first century North America. I engage with the following broad questions: Why and how does Orthodox Christianity remain a relevant faith in twenty-first century North America, where it is relatively new and “foreign”? What does belonging to an Orthodox Christian community mean for both North American converts and Orthodox-born immigrant believers? How is this faith culturally adapted and negotiated in a context where it may appear to many to be counter-cultural? I will illustrate that such adaptation becomes possible at least partly due to the interpretative strategies of what I call