DYNAMICS OF INTERPLAY BETWEEN THIRD-PARTY INTERVENERS AND NATIONAL FACTIONS IN CIVIL WAR PEACE NEGOTIATIONS: CASE STUDIES ON CAMBODIA AND EL SALVADOR Sung Yong Lee A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 2011 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/1864 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons License University of St Andrews Dynamics of Interplay between Third-Party Interveners and National Factions in Civil War Peace Negotiations: Case Studies on Cambodia and El Salvador by Sung Yong Lee A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of International Relations November 2010 Declaration of Authorship 1. Candidate’s Declarations: I, Sung Yong Lee, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 80,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in October 2007 and as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in December 2008; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2007 and 2010. date ________________________ signature of candicate _________________________ 2. Supervisor’s Declaration: I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. date ________________________ signature of supervisor _________________________ 3. 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The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the electronic publication of this thesis: Access to Printed copy and electronic publication of thesis through the University of St Andrews. date ________________________ signature of candidate _________________________ signature of supervisor _________________________ Abstract School of International Relations Doctor of Philosophy by Sung Yong Lee This thesis examines the processes of the peace negotiations in Cambodia (1987-1993) and El Salvador (1989-1993) in order to address the following question: What does the interplay between the national factions and the external interveners in peace negotiations tell us about their chances of achieving their goals? By using the concept of ‘interplay,’ this study reinterprets the negotiation processes as the negotiating actors’ exchanges of strategic moves. In particular, it explores how the negotiating actors’ attitudes towards the core negotiation issues changed in the two cases and how the changes affected their counterparts’ negotiating strategies. There are two aspects to the findings of this thesis, one descriptive and the other explanatory. First, this study has investigated the characteristics of the negotiating actors’ strategies and the pattern of the interplay between them. As for the interveners’ strategies, this thesis finds that impartial third parties generally employ diplomatic intervention methods, while advocate states enjoy a wider range of options. In addition, national factions’ behaviour is generally affected by three factors: their fundamental goals, the domestic resources under their control, and the incentives or pressure from external interveners. It is also observed that the stronger the intervention becomes, the more that national factions’ provisional strategies are inclined to be receptive towards the intervention. Nevertheless, the national factions rarely fully accepted proposals that they deemed harmful to the achievement of their fundamental goals. Second, based on the descriptive findings, this thesis highlights the importance of mutual understanding between national factions and external interveners. The case studies of Cambodia and El Salvador show that the effectiveness of a particular intervention depends not so much on the type of method employed but on the context in which it is applied. An intervention is more likely to be effective when it is used in a way that national factions can understand and is supported by the consistently strong attention of external interveners. In addition, it is observed that actors’ ethnocentric perceptions on core concepts of conflict and negotiation as well as their lack of an effective communication capability are some of the common causes of the misunderstandings that arise during negotiation processes. Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures ii Acknowledgements iii Acronyms v Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Peace Negotiations and Third-Party Intervention 12 Chapter 3 Research Framework and Methodology 63 Chapter 4 Case Study Overview 116 Chapter 5 The Interplay between National Factions and Impartial Third Parties 165 Chapter 6 The Interplay between National Factions and Advocate States 216 Chapter 7 Analysis of the Case Studies 265 Chapter 8 Conclusion 297 Appendices 317 Bibliography 339 < Tables > Table 2.1. Internal Peace Agreements: 1991-2005 44 Table 3.1. The Typology of National Factions’ Choices 80 Table 3.2. Eleven Peace Negotiation Cases in the Post-Cold War Period 83 Table 4.1. Actors in the Cambodian Conflict, 1975-1993 130 Table 4.2. Actors in the Salvadoran Conflict, 1989 150 Table 5.1. Major Perceptual Barriers in the Cambodian Negotiations 193 Table 6.1. Perceptual Limitations That Shaped the PDK’s Strategies 243 Table 7.1. The Typology of National Factions’ Choices 271 Table 7.2. The Patterns of National Factions’ Behaviour and Their Consequences 273 Table III.1. Main organisations of the FMLN 333 < Figures > Figure 3.1. The Framework of Analysis 66 Figure 3.2. The Level of Analysis 68 Figure 3.3. Variables Determining National Factions’ Strategies 74 Figure 4.1. Map of Cambodia 121 Figure 4.2. CGDK Areas of Control, mid-1980s 129 Figure 4.3. Relations between the Major Actors in the Cambodian Peace Negotiations 136 Figure 4.4. Map of El Salvador 143 Figure 4.5. FMLN Areas of Control and Expansion in 1989 148 Figure 4.6. Relations between the Major Actors in the Salvadoran Peace Negotiation 156 Figure 5.1. Dynamics of the Interplay between the PRK and the UN / the US 192 Figure 5.2. Dynamics of the Interplay between the FMLN and the UN 211 Figure 6.1. Change in the Common Interests of China and the PDK 241 Figure 6.2. Dynamics of the Interplay between the PDK and China 242 Figure 6.3. Dynamics of the Interplay between the US, the Cristiani Government, and the ESAF 260 Figure 7.1. National Factions’ Vulnerability to Internal Rivalry 275 Figure 7.2. The Composition of the Transitional Authorities in Cambodia and El Salvador 279 ii Acknowledgements There are numerous people that I want to express my gratitude to. It would not have been possible for me to research, write, and complete this thesis without their support. It is a shame that I cannot mention all of them. Dr Roger Mac Ginty has provided tremendous help throughout this project. Although his official position was as my first supervisor, he has been a brother, friend, counsellor, and mentor. I am extremely grateful for having had the privilege of working with him. Prof. Andrew Williams and Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem have provided me with inspiration, constructive criticism, and excellent advice. Prof. Shin-wha Lee has always been the closest and warmest advisor since my undergraduate period. My special thanks should go to Mr Soren Aspinal and Mr Sowath Loeurm. I won’t forget their superb language support (English and Khmer), accurate criticism, and emotional support. In reality, they were hidden supervisors of this project. I owe many thanks to the scholars who kindly offered highly valuable comments and information through interviews and e-mail exchanges: David Chandler, Stephen Heder, Sorpong Peou, Ramses Amer, Johan Saravanamuttu, Gerardo Munck, Terry Lynn Karl, and Maria de Conceicao Neto. During the field research stages, I received financial support from the School of International Relations, University of St Andrews. Two of my philosophical mentors, Dr Daisaku Ikeda and Ven Pomnyun, should also be mentioned. Their teachings enabled me to finish this research. iii Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my family, Gyunyeol Lee, Sunki Park, Jinyong Lee, Jihyun Kim, Suseong Lee, and Eunyoung Cho. I love you. St Andrews, November 2010 Sung Yong Lee iv Acronyms CAMBODIA AGKE