Revolution in the South Leaders of Independence in Southern South America José de San Martín José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras was born in 1778 in Argentina, where his father served as a soldier and colonial administrator. Both of his parents were Spanish, and San Martín returned to Spain with his family at the age of six. As a young adult, he served in the Spanish military, later fighting Napoleon’s occupation of Spain. At his request, San Martín was then sent to South America to end resistance to Spanish rule. However, once in South America, he changed allegiance and fought with the revolutionaries, instead of against them. The reason for this change of heart is not clear. San Martín later claimed that he heard the call of his native land. Some historians believe he was actively recruited to the revolutionary cause. San Martín proved to be an exceptional trainer and leader. His achievements earned him the title of the Liberator of Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Bernardo O’Higgins Bernardo O’Higgins Riquelme was of Spanish and Irish ancestry. Born in Chile in 1778—the same year José de San Martín was born—O’Higgins was the illegitimate son of a Spanish-Irish officer who served as governor of Chile and viceroy of Peru. As a teenager, O’Higgins was sent to England to study. There, he met Venezuelan independence leader Francisco Miranda and other political activists. After spending time in Spain, O’Higgins returned to Chile and, after his father’s death, took over one of his father’s haciendas. In 1810, when Chile took its first steps toward independence, O’Higgins participated in the movement. Within a few years, he became commander of the forces that would win Chile’s independence from Spain. Later, as Chile’s supreme director from 1817 to 1823, he also served as his nation’s first head of state. Independence in Río de la Plata Independence in Río de la Plata, an area that once comprised the present-day countries of Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Uruguay, began in 1806 after Creoles and Spanish colonists successfully defended Buenos Aires from a British invasion. The event proved unifying in nature and helped lay the groundwork for a growing independence movement that began two years later, following Napoleon Bonaparte’s installation of his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. Two governments emerged in Rio de la Plata at this time: the government of Napoleon Bonaparte and a government created by those who continued to support the legitimacy of King Ferdinand VII. In 1810, leaders in Buenos Aires established an autonomous viceroyalty, claiming their legal right to do so until a legitimate Spanish ruler was restored to the throne. When Ferdinand VII was reinstated in 1814, 1 however, leaders of the viceroyalty questioned his efficacy and power, and ultimately decided to declare their independence from Spain outright. The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata was established on July 9, 1816. Unfortunately, independence was not without its costs. Conflict between revolutionaries and royalists, largely in the northern part of present-day Argentina, continued to rage, largely due to the proximity of a royalist stronghold in Upper Peru. The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata dissolved between 1814 and 1828, becoming the independent countries of Paraguay, Bolivia, and Uruguay. Independence in Chile As in other parts of South America, Chilean independence was largely influenced by the independence movements that occurred in the United States, Europe, and Haiti. On September 18, 1810, local leaders met at a town meeting in Santiago, at which they agreed upon the resignation of the president- governor and the implementation of a new government. For three years, Chile underwent significant changes, including shifting trade policies, changes to the institution of slavery, and a growing emphasis on education. These changes, however, were met with resistance. Internal divisions among Creoles and Spain’s efforts to reconquer Chile in 1814 led to the relocation of Chile’s revolutionary leaders to Argentina, among them Bernardo O’Higgins. Once in Argentina, O’Higgins met with leader José de San Martín and devised a plan to liberate Chile before using the country as an operational base to launch an attack on Upper Peru. By January 1817, O’Higgins and San Martín marched into Chile and defeated royalist forces at Chacabuco before heading to Santiago. O’Higgins was made supreme dictator, and Chilean independence was declared a year later on February 12, 1818. Chile remained deeply divided following independence, as the entrenched social order barred many from participating in government. Independence in Peru The actions of Napoleon Bonaparte in Spain had a lesser impact in Peru than in other South American colonies, mostly due to Peru’s large Spanish-born population and strong military. As a result, Peru’s liberation was the result of external actors, not internal leaders. José de San Martín knew that to truly secure Argentina’s independence, he would need to eliminate royalist influence in Upper Peru. He was also interested in securing control of Peru’s silver mines. San Martín’s plan relied first on the liberation of Chile before attacking Peru by sea. By 1820, San Martín and his forces occupied the port of Pisco and were able to march into Lima by July 1821. Unable to defeat the Spanish occupying Peru’s interior, San Martín solicited the help of Simón Bolívar, who ultimately declined to come to his aid. San Martín was forced to retreat from Peru, and Bolívar eventually secured Peruvian independence in 1824. 2.