Università degli studi di Milano Università degli studi di Torino Dip. di Scienze Sociali e Politiche Dip. di Culture, politica e società PhD PROGRAM SOCIOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL RESEARCH – 30th cohort Ethnonationality and Inter-Generational Dis-Continuities. Political regimes, ideologies and masses in Bosnia Herzegovina and Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, from their Yugoslav past until nowadays. Doctoral dissertation by Arianna Maria Bambina Piacentini Supervisor: Prof. Dario Tuorto Co-Supervisor: Prof. Paolo Segatti Director of Doctoral Program: Prof. Mario Cardano II 1 To those who believed in it. III 1 IV 1 Table of Content List of Table XIII List of Abbreviations XV Acknowledgement XVII INTRODUCTION 1 0.1 Topic of the research 1 0.1.1 Aims and Relevance of the study 3 0.2 Research questions and Hypothesis 4 0.3 Research design and Methodological choices 7 0.3.1 Time period and political regimes: why Yugoslavia and post-Yugoslavia 7 0.3.2 Context: Why Macedonia and Bosnia Herzegovina 10 0.3.2.1 Skopje and Sarajevo 13 0.3.3 Unit of analysis: why two generations 13 0.3.3.1 Scientific Relevance in Considering Parents and Children 14 0.4 Methodology of the Research 16 0.4.1 Families and semi-structured interviews 16 0.4.1.1 Structure and topics of the interviews 17 0.4.2 Informants and semi-structured interviews 19 0.4.3 Research obstacles 20 0.5 Structure and findings of the research 22 CHAPTER 1 – CONCEPTS AND THEORIES. COLLECTIVITIES, IDEOLOGIES AND THE STATE 26 1.1 Ethnic groups and Nations 27 1.1.1 Ethnic boundaries and Collectivities 27 1.1.2 Identities and Identifications 29 V 1 1.1.3 Building the Nation 30 1.1.3.1 The role of Nationalism 32 1.2 The Nation-State 34 1.2.1 Nationalism and the Nation-State 35 1.2.2 Nationalism and Masses’ Loyalty 36 1.2.2.1 Nations as Extended Families 37 1.2.2.2 Sacred Nations 37 1.2.3 Nations, State and Violence 38 1.3 The Multinational State 40 1.3.1 Political Engineering to Manage Plurality 41 1.3.1.1 Consociationalism, Centripetalism and Critiques 42 1.3.2 The Ethnopolitical Drift 44 1.3.2.1 Understanding the Loop 45 1.4 Conclusive Remarks 49 CHAPTER 2 – NATIONS, IDEOLOGIES AND INSTITUTIONS. THE ‘SOCIALIST FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA’ (SFRY) 50 2.1 Groups before the SFRY: a brief historical overview 51 2.1.1 From Millet to Nationhood 51 2.1.2 The South Yugoslavs’ Unity: from Karađorđević to Socialism 54 2.2 Socialism and Yugoslavia 55 2.2.1 Nations and Legitimacy: the birth of Socialist Yugoslavia 57 2.2.1.1 Nations’ status in the SFRY 58 2.2.1.2 Recognition of National Specificities 59 2.2.2 Fostering the ‘we-feeling’: Bratstvo i Jedinstvo and Jugoslovenstvo 60 2.2.2.1 The Yugoslavs 62 2.2.3 The Constitutive Role of the State 64 2.2.3.1 The Macedonians and the ‘New Macedonian Question’ 64 2.2.3.2 The Muslims 65 2.3 The Reappearance of the National Question and the 1974 Constitution 66 2.3.1 Liberals and Conservatives – ‘Serbian Liberalism’ and the ‘Croatian Spring’ 67 2.3.2 The Kosovo Issue 69 VI 1 2.3.3 The 1974 Constitution: the victory of Kardelj’s understanding of Yugoslavia 70 2.4 Crisis and Collapse of the SFRY 72 2.4.1 Nations or Republics? Controversies over the right of Self-Determination 74 2.4.2 The Multiparty Elections 76 2.5 Conclusive remarks. Ethnic plurality, Nationalism and the State 78 CHAPTER 3 - DETERIORATION OF ‘BROTHERHOOD AND UNITY’ AND REDEFINITION OF ETHNONATIONALITY IN THE FEDERAL UNITS OF BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA AND MACEDONIA 80 3.1 Bosnia Herzegovina and Macedonia as Federal Units of the SFRY 81 3.1.2 Institutional collapse and external influences 83 3.1.2.1 Bosnia in the middle: ethnic kin-states’ influences 83 3.1.2.2 Kosovo, the ethnic Albanian community and the ethnic Macedonians’ frustrations 84 3.2 The 1990s. When Nationalism seemed the only Option 86 3.2.1 The multiparty elections and Bosnia’s road to war 86 3.2.1.1 ‘No one will touch Sarajevo’ 88 3.2.2 ‘Constitutional nationalism’ and the independence of Macedonia 90 3.3 After Yugoslavia. When Nationalism becomes legitimate 95 3.3.1 The Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) and the Bosnian state-building (failure) 95 3.3.2 Constitutional debates, ethnic Albanians’ frustrations and the 2001 conflict 97 3.3.2.1 The Ohrid Framework Agreement (OFA) and the Macedonian de facto bi-national state 98 3.4 Conclusive remarks. Political issues’ social impact: re-shaping identities and inter-ethnic relations in post-Yugoslav BiH and Macedonia 100 PREMISE TO THE EMPIRICAL CHAPTERS 104 VII 1 CHAPTER 4 – ‘DIVIDE ET IMPERA’. UNDERSTANDING ETHNOPOLITICS AND ITS LEGITIMACY IN TODAY’S MACEDONIA AND BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA 106 4.1 Where does Ethnopolitics come from? 107 4.2 a) On institutionalized Ethnicity via Consociationalism 111 4.2.1 Macedonia and the de facto bi-national state 111 4.2.2 Bosnia Herzegovina: no Representation without Ethnic Identification 112 4.3 b) On (Ethnic) political pluralism 115 4.3.1 Macedonia’s Bi-National Political Pluralism 117 4.3.2 Bosnia’s Three sides 120 4.4 c) On Ethnocentrism and Nationalism as Dominant Narratives 123 4.4.1 Political Propaganda and Media 123 4.4.1.1 Macedonia’s Bipolar System 124 4.4.1.2 Bosnia’s Tripolar System 126 4.4.2 Indoctrination via (Ethnically Divided) School Systems 127 4.4.2.1 Macedonia’s Pupils divided in Shifts and Buildings 127 4.4.2.2 Bosnia’s Segregated Education 129 4.4.3 The (Political) Role of Religion 131 4.4.3.1 The Autocephalous Macedonian Orthodox Church and the Islamic Community 132 4.4.3.2 The three Bosnian Religious Communities 133 4.5 d) On The State’s Economy and Resources’ Allocation. Where doesn’t arrive Ideology, arrive the Money. 134 4.5.1 Bosnia and Macedonia: Different Groups, Same Dynamics 136 4.6 Ethnic Political Elite and ‘Divide et Impera’ 143 4.7 Conclusive remarks. Is there a way out? 146 CHAPTER 5 – ‘ETHNONATIONALITY HAS ALWAYS MATTERED’. INTER-GENERATIONAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN GROUPS’ STATUS AND BENEFITS. THE CASE OF SKOPJE. 151 5.1 The Yugoslav Generation and Youth’s Family Backgrounds 152 5.1.1 Remembering and Forgetting Yugoslavia 153 VIII 1 5.1.1.1 Collective Memories: Macedonia towards the Independence 155 5.1.2 The Fluctuating Path of Inter-Ethnic Relations 157 5.1.3 Political Attitudes and Political Opinions 163 5.1.3.1 Political Parties 163 5.1.3.2 Clientelism: between Frustrations and Status Elevation 165 5.1.4 Parents and Children. What do they discuss at Home? The parents’ perspective 169 5.1.4.1 Politics 169 5.1.4.2 Ethnicity and Inter-group relations 170 5.1.4.2.1 Would you be happy if…? 171 5.2 The Post-Yugoslav Generation. Young Adults in Transition 173 5.2.1 From Childhood to Adulthood: Understanding Youth’s social Life 174 5.2.1.1 School and Friends 174 5.2.2 Inter-Ethnic Relations: ‘We don’t bother each other, that’s all’ 176 5.2.3 Political Attitudes and Political Opinions 179 5.2.4 Young Adults on Clientelism 184 5.2.4.1 Young Adults and Employment via Ethnonational Political Parties 187 5.2.5 Parents and Children. What do they discuss at Home? The Youth’s Perspective 190 5.3 Conclusive Reflections. Yugoslav Parents and the Post-Yugoslav Children. Understanding Ethnonational Belonging across the Two Generations 193 5.3.1 Continuity and Changes: understanding the Yugoslav generation and the Family environment 193 5.3.2 Inter-generational apparent Continuity and Generational differences 196 CHAPTER 6 – ‘ETHNONATIONALITY HAS NEVER MATTERED’. INTER-GENERATIONAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN COSMOPOLITANISM AND SURVIVAL. THE CASE OF SARAJEVO 200 6.1 The Yugoslav Generation and Youth’s Family Backgrounds 201 IX 1 6.1.1 Brief Premise before a long Analysis. Parents’ Ethno-territorial origins, Yugoslav Melting-Pot and Identity Issues 202 6.1.2 Yugoslavia Mon Amour 204 6.1.2.1 The war 206 6.1.3 Inter-Ethnic Relations 208 6.1.4 Political Attitudes and Political Opinions 209 6.1.4.1 ‘Nije Država’ - It’s not a Country 212 6.1.5 The Politics of Fear 214 6.1.5.1 Surviving Insecurities via Ethnic Clientelism 214 6.1.6 Parents and Children. What do they discuss at Home? The parents’ perspective 216 6.1.6.1 Politics 216 6.1.6.2 Ethnicity and Inter-group relations 217 6.1.6.2.1 Would you be happy if…? 218 6.2 The Post-Yugoslav Generation. Young Adults in Transition 219 6.2.1 From Childhood to Adulthood: Understanding Youth’s social Life 221 6.2.1.1 School and Friends 221 6.2.2 The Sarajevans, the Bosnians Herzegovinians and inter-ethnic relations 223 6.2.3 Political Attitudes and Political Opinions 227 6.2.3.1 Youth and Clientelism: the Need of Survival 230 6.2.4 Parents and Children. What do they discuss at Home? Youth’s Perspective 233 6.2.4.1 Generational changes 237 6.3 Conclusive Reflections. Yugoslav Parents and the Post-Yugoslav Children. Understanding the politico-institutional importance of Ethnonational belonging and its Social Irrelevance in the ‘special’ context of Sarajevo 238 6.3.1 Continuity and Changes: understanding the Yugoslav generation 238 6.3.2 Inter-generational Continuity and Generational Differences 242 6.3.3 A Couple of Remarks 244 X 1 CHAPTER 7 – ETHNONATIONALITY IN MACEDONIA AND BOSNIA HERZEGOVINA.