VOICELESS VOICES IN A SILENT ZONE: THE ROLE OF THE INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE INTERPRETER IN OAXACA, MEXICO by Monica Morales-Good B. A., Emporia State University, 2009 M.A., New Mexico State University, 2012 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Interdisciplinary Studies) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Okanagan) August 2020 © Monica Morales-Good, 2020 ii The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the College of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis entitled: Voiceless Voices in a Silent Zone: The Role of the Indigenous Language Interpreter in Oaxaca, Mexico. submitted by Monica Good in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Dr. Allison Hargreaves, Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies Supervisor Dr. Jeannette Armstrong, Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Christine Schreyer, Irving K. Barber School of Arts and Sciences Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Candace Galla, UBC Vancouver, Language and Literacy Education University Examiner Dr. Cristina Kleinert, Universidad Veracruzana, Facultad de Idiomas External Examiner iii Abstract This dissertation documents the challenges faced by Indigenous language speakers when accessing the justice system in the state of Oaxaca, although the situation is the same for Indigenous communities across the Mexican Republic and beyond. Every year thousands of Indigenous speakers are jailed without knowing the charges they are facing due to a language barrier. In Mexico, qualified Indigenous language interpreters are scarce. Further, the State employees refuse to admit the need for language services and the worth of Indigenous language interpreters’ jobs. I partnered with CEPIADET, a not-for-profit organization that provides legal guidance and interpretation services to Indigenous defendants in the state of Oaxaca. CEPIADET supports many initiatives regarding the recognition of linguistic rights for Indigenous defendants, cultural reclamation, and the revival of Indigenous justice systems. I have worked closely with them on initiatives involving language and cultural revitalization. This research supports initiatives to recognize not only Indigenous language interpreters but also the knowledge they carry within their Indigenous languages. Additionally, this research advances the recognition of Indigenous normative systems as they can enhance the State justice system and reduce a defendant’s pretrial time. This research strives to bridge the gap between the State justice systems and Indigenous defendants, proposing Indigenous interpreters and Indigenous authorities as a bridge to minimize language and cultural gaps. The results of this research indicate that Indigenous language speakers face considerable barriers when accessing the justice system. As a result of the lack of implementation of language rights, Indigenous defendants face racism, mistreatment, and abuse. The participants pointed out that the intervention of an interpreter would help assure that a case is judged with the minimum law requirements – the defendants’ right to understand the case against them. The participants called for the recognition and incorporation of Indigenous knowledge in the State jurisdiction. Although this is my dissertation (regarding authorship), this research gathers the voices of Indigenous-language-speaking survivors of the legal system and Indigenous language interpreters to call for the recognition of language rights as part of human rights in the legal setting. iv Lay Summary Indigenous speakers are overrepresented in the Mexican jail system due to a language barrier (Weller 2013, 2, Shirk 2010, 205). Mexico’s failure to provide appropriate interpretation services is one of the primary reasons for the imprisonment of Indigenous peoples (Berk- Seligson 2008, 11-6). Without the help of an interpreter, Indigenous peoples struggle to present their ideas in a legal setting that favors Spanish over Indigenous languages. Therefore, navigating the legal setting is complicated for Indigenous peoples because of the negative views tied to language ideologies (Kroskrity 2004, Lippi-Green 2012). Indigenous defendants will admit Spanish proficiency to avoid mistreatment; this, however, has unfavorable results in the observation of Human Rights. This dissertation calls for the recognition of Indigenous interpreters as an important element in the legal system; as such, their job should be dignified. This dissertation also calls to recognize the work done by Indigenous authorities in the administration of justice. v Preface This research advanced the design of the first Un-Conference for Indigenous Language Interpreters and Translators, an International meeting held in Oaxaca, Mexico, in August 2019 (Year of Indigenous Languages), organized with funding from the Equity and Inclusion office as well as the Faculty of Creative and Critical Studies, the Catedra Carlos Fuentes, TRACE Innovation Initiative, and UF English. The Un-Conference yielded a peer-reviewed publication, “Intérpretes y Traductores de Lenguas Indígenas: Hacia un ejercicio pleno de los Derechos Lingüísticos.” Chapter five of this dissertation, “Silent Zones,” inspired an article that I submitted for publication entitled “Training and Professionalization of Indigenous Language Translators.” Ethics approval for this research was granted in May 2017. Dr. Allison Hargreaves was the Principal Investigator. University of British Columbia Okanagan Behaviour Research Ethics Board approved the project H16-01660. All research participants signed consent forms. vi Table of Contents Abstract ………………………………….…………………………………………………….iii Lay Summary …………………………..……………………………………………………...iv Preface………………………………...………………………………………………………...v Table of Contents ……………………………………………………...………………………vi List of Tables …………………………………………………………...……………………...ix List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………….x Acknowledgements ………………………………………………...……………………….....xi Dedication ………………………………………………………...…………………………...xii Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Self-location ...................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Who Am I? ........................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 8 1.4 Community Context .......................................................................................... 12 1.5 Defining Terms and Approach .......................................................................... 15 1.6 Final Note .......................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2 Historical Background ......................................................................................... 19 2.1 My Experience as an Interpreter ....................................................................... 19 2.2 The Interpreter, a Language Conduit ................................................................ 21 2.3 Interpreting in the Legal Setting ....................................................................... 23 2.3.1 Differences in Language ...................................................................... 24 2.4 Language and Cultural Encounter .................................................................... 26 2.4.1 Interpreters of the Conquest ................................................................. 29 2.4.2 Lenguas and Intermediaries ................................................................. 31 2.5 Mexico – An Independent State with Principles of Liberty and Justice? .......... 37 2.6 An Indigenous Era ............................................................................................ 38 2.6.1 The Introduction of Boarding Schools ................................................ 40 2.6.2 Bilingual and Bi-Cultural Education for Indigenous Students ............ 42 2.7 The Zapatista Movement: Its Role in Making the Indigenous Identity Visible 43 2.8 Mexico’s Multicultural Nature ......................................................................... 47 2.9 The Need for Interpretation .............................................................................. 49 2.9.1 The Need for ILI in Mexico ................................................................ 51 Chapter 3 Methodological Framework and Research Methods ......................................... 55 3.1 The Preference for One Language Over Another ............................................. 55 3.2 Language Ideologies and Their Relationship to This Research ........................ 56 vii 3.3 Challenges to Community Research ................................................................. 59 3.4 Community-Based Participatory Action Research ........................................... 61 3.5 Research Structure ............................................................................................ 64 3.6 It Begins with Respect ...................................................................................... 66 3.6.1 Building Connections .......................................................................... 67 3.6.2 Gaining Trust ......................................................................................