Change and Continuity in the Political Economy of the Ahousaht by Clifford Gordon Atleo A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Alberta © Clifford Gordon Atleo, 2018 Abstract The intent of this dissertation is to understand the dilemmas of contemporary Ahousaht political economy in the context of settler colonialism and neoliberal capitalism. Our history with settler colonialism is one of dispossession, resistance, re-structuring, assimilation, as well as agency and adaptation. Importantly, we have endured and co-crafted tremendous change in addition to fighting to maintain our cultural and political autonomy, integrity and continuity. Settler colonialism provides a broad framework for understanding Nuu-chah- nulth political, legal, economic and social engagements with European colonialists, the Canadian state, and the considerable consequent constraints. It represents an asymmetrical relationship that Nuu-chah-nulth-aht, like many Indigenous peoples, have struggled to survive and navigate. A key research question is: How have the Ahousaht co-crafted that change and fought for continuity? Along with our lands, waters, relatives and resources being assaulted via settler colonialism and neoliberal capitalism, our identities and cultures remain targeted for erasure or irrelevance. Through my research, however, I have discovered an unexpected resilience, especially with respect to our traditional governance systems, which began a concerted revival at the end of the twentieth century. Understanding contemporary Ahousaht political economy requires a focus on the centrality of the ha’wiih (hereditary chiefs) and the ongoing resilience of traditional Nuu-chah-nulth governance systems. In my literature review I explore Aboriginal economic development generally as well as the specific notion of Aboriginalized capitalism, and consider it in the context of Nuu-chah-nulth political economic decision-making, both historically and contemporarily. I investigate whether our engagements with capitalism change us in unwanted ways, in addition to exploring efforts to mitigate the damage. Additionally, I examine the concept of ii C. Atleo decolonization as an important aspect of Indigenous community resurgence, including related Indigenous and Nuu-chah-nulth specific concepts. I also ask: is decolonization actually possible in a settler state like Canada, and how is it manifest from both individual and collective contexts? I critically engage Nuu-chah-nulth traditions by identifying core principles that might be adapted and redeployed to meet our contemporary challenges, as well as the identification of undesirable or unjust traditional elements that should be discarded. The latter includes aspects of our contemporary cultures that are misogynistic and patriarchal.1 Finally, I begin the process of trying to identify Nuu-chah-nulth alternatives to the neoliberal capitalist paradigm that currently dominates our lives and economic, political and cultural landscapes. I introduce several inspiring Nuu-chah-nulth-aht who work to re- centre Nuu-chah-nulth perspectives, re-connect with their homelands and waters, and do their (decolonial) best to live Nuu-chah-nulth-aht. 1 My gendered analysis is limited here, but I contend that one cannot engage in a contemporary discussion about Indigenous traditions without being critical of the ways in which Indigenous cultures, politics and economics are often deployed in misogynistic and patriarchal ways. More work is required in this area, both in our communities and in our scholarly efforts. iii C. Atleo Preface Publications: A summary of the broad themes of this thesis has been published as: Atleo, (Kam’ayaam/Chachim’multhnii) Clifford. “Aboriginal Economic Development and Living Nuu-chah-nulth-aht” in More Will Sing Their Way to Freedom: Indigenous Resistance and Resurgence edited by Elaine Coburn. Black Point: Fernwood Publishing, 2015. A previous and much shorter version of the literature review in chapter three has been published as: Atleo, Clifford Gordon. “Aboriginal Capitalism: Is Resistance Futile or Fertile?” Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 9, 2 (2015): 41-51. iv C. Atleo Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my family: My loving wife, Tuutiisqwisaht!uk (Hilary) and my children, Na"a’o’aht (Fisher) and Kiitki# (Eleanor). I also dedicate this work to the children and future generations of the Nuu-chah-nulth, Tsimshian and Anishinaabe peoples. May you inherit the legitimacy of our struggle to live beautiful Indigenous lives. v C. Atleo Acknowledgements Kleco to my Nuu-chah-nulth relatives and the people of Ahous and T’oyaxsut ‘nüün to my Tsimshian relatives and the people of Kitselas and Kitsumkalum, especially those who still hold dear the best of our traditions and are working hard to live them everyday. Heartfelt thanks are extended to my committee, as well as other supportive faculty members in the Department of Political Science at the University of Alberta. Thanks also to the staff who have been wonderfully supportive of my PhD journey. Thanks to my comprehensive exam mentors, Janine Brodie and Robert Nichols. Thanks to fellow critical Indigenous scholars who have been supportive of my scholarship and inspirational with their own research and writing: Audra Simpson, Johnny Mack, Leanne Simpson, Glen Coulthard, Vanessa Watts-Powless, Nick Claxton, Rachel Flowers and Joshua Reid. Special thanks to Renée McBeth, Madeline Whetung, Chaw-win- is, Adam Barker, Toby Rollo and my wife Hilary, for your invaluable feedback on my research and writing. Thanks to Nuu-chah-nulth academic trailblazers: Umeek (E. Richard Atleo) and Charlotte Coté. Gratitude to Jeff Corntassel, Ana Maria Peredo, James Tully, Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark, Karena Shaw, and James Rowe at the University of Victoria for your ongoing support and encouragement of my work. Thanks to the Social Science and Humanities Research Council for the CGS Doctoral Scholarship and Ned Blackhawk and Yale University for the Henry Roe Cloud Dissertation Writing Fellowship that helped me support my family while I wrote my thesis. Of course, endless gratitude to my immediate and extended family for your love and support that made all of this possible. vi C. Atleo Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….............ii Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………iv Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….vi Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………...vii Glossary of Nuu-chah-nulth Terms……………………………………………………….....ix Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………….xii Personal Introduction……………………………………………………………….……...xiii Chapter One – Introduction…………………………………………………………………..1 Contemporary Economic Life in Nuu-chah-nulth Territories………………………11 Aboriginal Economic Development………………………………………………...19 The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development………...22 Aboriginal Economic Development in Canada…………………………..…31 Nuu-chah-nulth Life………………………………………………………………...41 Scope, Limitations, and Chapter Outline…………………………………………...45 Chapter Two – Methodology and Key Concepts ………………………………………......50 Theoretical and Methodological Approach………………………………………....50 Critically Engaging Nuu-chah-nulth Traditions…………………………………….56 On the Complexity of Contemporary Indigenous Identities..……………………….62 Colonization, Decolonization and Comparable Indigenous/Nuu-chah-nulth……….67 Nuu-chah-nulth Colonization and Decolonization………………………….84 Chapter Three - Capitalism, Neoliberal Capitalism and Aboriginal Capitalism....................89 Aboriginal Capitalism……………………………………………………………….97 The Indian Problem and Problems in Indian Country…………………….100 Reservation Capitalism…………………………………………………….117 Tribal Capitalism…………………………………………………………..126 The Borg and Capitalism with a Red Face………………………………...136 Community Capitalism…………………………………………………….144 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………....150 Chapter Four – The Nuu-chah-nulth-aht……………………………………………….….154 Contemporary Nuu-chah-nulth-aht…………………………………………..…….154 Nuu-chah-nulth-aht: A Selective History………………………………………….164 Whaling and the Spiritual Orientation of Nuu-chah-nulth-aht…………....165 Nuu-chah-nulth Experiences at Indian Residential Schools…………..…...169 Generosity, Reciprocity & Nuu-chah-nulth Potlatching Through History..174 vii C. Atleo Nuu-chah-nulth Ha’wiih…………………………………………………...179 The Ahous-Otsoos War…………………………………………………….186 Key Nuu-chah-nulth Values and Principles……………………………………….190 A Nuu-chah-nulth Perspective on Change.......……………………………193 Critical Traditionalism……………………………………………………………..194 Chapter Five – Nuu-chah-nulth Economic Development Through History……………….199 Nuu-chah-nulth Whaling…………………………………………………………..202 The Arrival of Mamalthnii: Colonial Trade & Changing Subsistence Patterns…...207 The Rise and Fall (and Rise?) of Nuu-chah-nulth Commercial Fishing…………..214 Ahousaht: From Fishers to Farmers of Fish……………………………………….220 The War in the Woods and the Revival of the Nuu-chah-nulth Ha’wiih………….227 Contemporary Nuu-chah-nulth Economic Development………………………….238 Iisaak Forest Resources……………………………………………………240 Chitaapi: To Mine or not to Mine………………………………………….243 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………253 Chapter Six – Living Nuu-chah-nulth-aht: Renewing Relations of Respect and Reciprocity…………………………………………………………………………………255 Introduction: From Critique to Resurgence………………………………………..255 The Nuu-chah-nulth Stop the Violence March………..…………………………...260 From Fishing to Fish Farming to Farming………………………………………...264