978-9934-564-45-1 CLARIFYING DIGITAL TERMS NATO StratCom COE Terminology Working Group Published by the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence ISBN: 978-9934-564-45-1 Authors: Neville Bolt, Leonie Haiden, Julian Hajduk, Elīna Lange-Ionatamišvili Contributors to the Project: Gundars Bergmanis-Korāts, Giorgio Bertolin, LTC Robert (Bob) Hobbs, Louise Marie Hurel, Charles Kriel, LTC Federico Lucidi, Sanda Svetoka, LTC Johannes Wiedemann Project manager: Elīna Lange-Ionatamišvili Design: Kārlis Ulmanis Riga, 30 July 2020 NATO STRATCOM COE 11b Kalnciema Iela Riga LV1048, Latvia www.stratcomcoe.org Facebook/stratcomcoe Twitter: @stratcomcoe This publication does not represent the opinions or policies of NATO or NATO StratCom COE. © All rights reserved by the NATO StratCom COE. Reports may not be copied, reproduced, distributed or publicly displayed without reference to the NATO StratCom COE. The views expressed here do not represent the views of NATO. Contents Introduction 4 Background and Rationale for Definitions 24 Glossary of Proposed Definitions 6 How can we test the project? Project Objectives ����������������������������������� 8 (Impact and verifiability) 42 Terminological Tensions - Project Rationale �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 9 Challenges �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 10 Using terms outside NATO - What role does context play? �� � � � � � � � � � � � 11 Why terminology and not lexicography? ��������������������������� 12 What is lexicography? �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 12 Terminology versus Lexicography in Practice � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 12 What is terminology? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 13 Early developments in Terminology �� � 13 A General Terminology Theory (GTT) �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 14 Beyond the General Terminology Theory � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 15 How to carry out this project ��������������� 17 What is a ‘language community’, ‘concept’, and ‘term’? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 17 NATO as a specialised language community and the Discipline of StratCom �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 17 Concept �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 18 Term �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 18 Basic Features and Scope � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 18 Methodology: How will concepts be defined? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 19 Best practice for writing definitions �� � 19 Methodological Assumptions � � � � � � � 20 Why Categorisation Frameworks? �� � � � � � � � 21 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3 Introduction Digital technologies and means of As digitalisation continues to transform communication have become a central our societies, it has also influenced the part of politics and social organisation. The language used to describe this process. role of AI, big data, and machine learning is Terms related to the developments and growing, as are ethical, privacy, and security possibilities brought on by digitalisation can concerns which these technologies bring seem confusing. Digital vs. cyber vs. online, with them. The purpose of this glossary is AI and machine learning lack distinction to encourage the use of precise and simple in popular usage and understanding. An language that bridges the terminological additional layer of complexity is added by divide between policymakers, soldiers, the multiplicity of language communities tech companies, academics, and that exist in this field: from programmers programmers. It is at the intersection of and computer scientists, to communicators, their respective fields, that digitalisation’s politicians, militaries, academics, and the potential for positive change as well as general public. ensuing challenges can be recognised and addressed. Sharing a common vocabulary Many terms become the subject of fashion. is the first step. After all, no one goes to cybercafes to 4 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� do their cybershopping anymore. Terms terms were deemed to squarely belong in initially used in a purely technical sense, the field of computer science, where they and in the field of computer science, evolve are already well-defined. The Terminology and may change their meaning when they Working Group prioritised ‘digital’ and are imported into the context of political ‘cyber’ language which relates to the main communications and conflict. Frequently, concerns of the international security field; terms appear to be used interchangeably namely, power and influence. This glossary without a second thought by its user is not exhaustive, but helps clarify the (‘online’/’cyber’/’digital’). Some terms are language we use in our professional lives. outdated but remain in use (certain ‘cyber’- compounds). Some terms require more specificity (‘artificial intelligence’), while others are more useful when defined in broader terms (‘attribution’). The ‘Digital Terms’ publication sits within the framework of thinking and follows the same methodology that has been guiding the Terminology Working Group since 2017. The definitions were deliberately kept at a general strategic communications level and do not reflect nuances that might be used or understood only in a niche language community of computer scientists. This glossary’s selection of terms and their definitions were guided by political, security, and, above all, strategic communications perspectives. As a first step, the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence’s (COE’s) Terminology Working Group created a comprehensive list of terms together with experts from the policymaking, commercial, technology, and military (NATO SHAPE, COE) sectors. The collection of terms was then narrowed down. Some terms were judged overly technical for the present publication. Such ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5 Glossary of Proposed Definitions attribution, n. The characteristic of digital, adj. the human brain to connect pieces of information into a sequence of cause and a. Related to the use of machine-driven effect. information technologies and systems to engage in society. algorithm, n. A defined set of mathematical or logical instructions for the performance b. Related to the impact or change caused of one (or several) tasks. by embracing digital technologies. artificial Intelligence (AI),n. digitisation, n. The process of changing Narrow (weak) AI: a programme that from an analogue to a digital form. performs one (or a few) tasks as well or better than humans. (e.g. Google Translate, digitalisation, n. A societal transformation Siri) enabled by embracing digital technologies. Artificial general intelligence (strong AI): a digital diplomacy, n. Conducting (public) programme that performs all tasks as well diplomacy through digital engagement. as humans and some tasks better than humans. (This does not exist yet.) digital engagement, n. Interacting with intended audiences2 through information Superintelligence (radically transformative technologies in order to spark and shift AI1): a programme that performs all tasks conversations in pursuit of strategic better than humans. (This also does not objectives� exist yet.) digital forensics, n. The application of Big Tech Imperialism, n. The expansion scientific knowledge and procedures to of economic power of supranational analyse data generated by information technology companies into politics, with technologies when investigating a potential to circumvent the sovereignty of punishable offence. states� digital media, n. Media transformed by cyber, adj. Related to a network of physical digital technologies in form, content, and virtual dimensions sustained by digital distribution, and consumption patterns. They technologies. are characterised by increased speed and 6 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� accessibility, and heightened competition of social responsibility, n. The obligation of ideas, and displacement of credibility. an organisation or individual to act for the benefit of society at large. data sovereignty, n. Supreme legal authority over data� virtual, adj. Exhibiting spatial and imaginable features via software. digital security, n. Protection of digital data, generated by and about users of information technologies, against efforts to harm individuals and/or society. information sovereignty, n. Supreme authority to control information within a jurisdiction� online, adj. and adv. Digitally connected. organic, adj. Used to characterise a system as dynamic and non-linear, yet self- organising and adaptive. n.b. In the context of digitalisation this is used in the form of: organic marketing, n. Conducted with internal resources and exhibiting the characteristics of a grass- roots activity. (this applies to digital marketing only) social media, n. Online platforms characterised by user-generated content and social interaction� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7 Project Objectives This publication’s collection of terms, one of the founding member of the NATO their definitions and rationales are part StratCom COE,3 and was approved by of an ongoing project for improving the Steering Committee in December terminology used in the context of 2017. The Terminology Working Group strategic communications. The original held