Work Motivation -Studies ofits Determinants and Outcomes Christina Bjorklund AKADEMISK AVHANDLING Som for avlaggande av filosofie doktorsexamen vid Handelshogskolan i Stockholm framlaggs for offentlig granskning fredagen den 27 april 2001, kIlO.I5 i Aulan, Handelshogskolan, Sveavagen 65. Work Motivation -Studies ofits Determinants and Outcomes tJl\ STOCKHOLM SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS ~~,-' EFI, THE ECONOMIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE EFIMission EFI, the Economic Research Institute at the Stockholm School ofEconomics, is a scientific institution which works independently ofeconomic, political and sectional interests. It conducts theoretical and empirical research in management and economic sciences, including selected related disciplines. The Institute encourages and assists in the publication and distribution ofits research findings and is also involved in the doctoral education at the Stockholm School of Economics. 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ORGANIZATIONAND MANAGEMENT Management and Organisation; (A) Prof Sven-Erik Sjostrand Center for Ethics and Economics; (CEE) Adj ProfHans de Geer Public Management; (F) ProfNils Brunsson Information Management; (I) ProfMats Lundeberg Center for People and Organization (PMO) Acting ProfJan Lowstedt Center for Innovation and Operations Management; (T) ProfChrister Karlsson ECONOMUCPSYCHOLOGY Center for Risk Research; (CFR) ProfLennart Sjoberg Economic Psychology; (P) ProfLennart Sjoberg MARKETING Center for Information and Communication Research; (CIC) Adj ProfBertil Thorngren Center for Consumer Marketing; (CCM) Associate ProfMagnus Soderlund Marketing, Distribution and Industrial Dynamics; (D) ProfLars-Gunnar Mattsson ACCOUNTING, CONTROL AND CORPORATE FINANCE Accounting and Managerial Finance; (B) ProfLars Ostman Managerial Economics; (C) ProfPeter Jennergren FINANCE Finance; (FI) ProfClas Bergstrom ECONOMICS Center for Health Economics; (CRE) ProfBengt Jonsson International Economics and Geography; (lEG) ProfMats Lundahl Economics; (S) , ProfLars Bergman ECONOMICS STATISTICS Economic Statistics; (ES) ProfAnders Westlund LAW Law; (RV) ProfErik Nerep Chairman ofthe Board: ProfSven-Erik Sjostrand. Director: Associate ProfBo Sellstedt, Adress EFI, Box 6501,8-113 83 Stockholm, Sweden • Internet: www.hhs.se/eftl Telephone: +46(0)8-736 90 00 • Fax: +46(0)8-31 62 70 • E-mail [email protected] Work Motivation - Studies ofits Determinants and Outcomes Christina Bjorklund t,!t\ STOCKHOLM SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS ~i7 EFI, THE ECONOMIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE f~" Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Ph.D. ~~ID'S'J ". '6',11 ,~ Stockholm School ofEconomics, 2001. © EFI and the author ISBNNR 91-7258-555-2 Keywords: work motivation job performance work interest child care insurance company Printed by: Elanders Gotab, Stockholm 2001 Distributed by: EFI, The Economic Research Institute Stockholm School ofEconomics Box 6501, S-113 83 Stockholm, Sweden To mymother Acknowledgements The years of working on my thesis at the Stockholm School ofEconomics have been exciting, interesting, and filled with many discussions and stimulating encounters with people. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisors. First of all, I would like to thank my n1ain advisor professor Lennart Sjoberg, who aroused my interest in the topic ofwork n10tivation. His advise, ideas and critical comments have been of great value to me. I would like to thank my second advisor, professor Erland Svensson, who has given me valuable comments on my thesis. I also would like to express my gratitude to professor Bo Ekehammar for all help and encouragement he has given me. I have had the privilege of being surrounded by interesting and supportive people of different academic backgrounds, which has increased my understanding of different research traditions, and, moreover, inspired the integration of different academic disciplines in my work. I would like to thank the past and the present people of the Economic Psychology Unit and CFR: Jana, Ylva, Arja, Jing Guan, Johan, Anders, Frederic, Pemilla, Asa, Helena, Patric, Joakim, Hakan, Per Henrik, and Mattias. In addition, special thanks to Caroline Nordlund for checking the language in the thesis and Gudrun for all support during difficult times. I am very grateful to all the people who kindly participated in my studies. Thanks to the Swedish Council for Work Life Research, TIle Economic Research Institute, and The School of Economics for financing my studies and to Rune Castenas and Lisa Tilert who have been very helpful with all financial matters. For all support and encouragement, I would like to thank my wonderful father and sister, Anna-Lena and her family. A special gratitude to my mother, who showed me to never give up. Last but not least, I would like to thank Thierry for always being there for me and for always believing me. I would not know if I would have made it without you. Thank once again to you all, I would not have had the courage and the strength to complete my thesis without you. Bromma, March 15,2001 Christina Bjorklund Table of content 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Purposes ofthe thesis............................................................ 2 1.2 Organization ofthe thesis............ 3 2. Theoretical framework. ............................... ...................... 4 2.1 Definition ofwork motivation.................................................... 4 2.2 Trends in work motivation theorizing 5 2.3 Work motivation theories 9 2.3.1 Introduction....................................................................... 9 2.3.2 Work motivation defined as willingness to work........................... 11 2.3.2.1 Will/volitional variables as predictors ofbehaviors 11 2.3.2.2 Theconceptofwill 12 2.3.3 Beliefs and attitudes 14 2.3.3.1 Job satisfaction 17 2.3.3.2 Organizational commitment 21 2.3.4 Incentives and rewards theory (extrinsic motivation) 24 2.3.5 Intrinsic motivation 28 2.3.6 Goal and goal setting............................................................ 30 2.3.7 Perceived Control 34 2.3.8 Factors related to work motivation 36 2.3.8.1 Occupational andorganizational stress 36 2.3.8.2 Work interest 39 2.3.8.3 Creativity '" 41 2.3.8.4 Work Environment 45 2.3.8.5 Perceivedrisks 47 2.3.8.6 Background/actors............................................................ 49 2.3.8.7 Management/leadership 51 2.3.9 Summary 53 2.4 Work related behavior............................................................ 54 2.4.1 Direction (withdrawal behaviors) 54 2.4.1.1 Absenteeism 55 2.4.1.2 Turnover (Intention to quit/leave) 56 2.4.2 Persistence (Number ofhours worked) 58 2.4.3 Intensity (Job performance) 58 2.4.3.1 Ratings ofjob performance 62 2.4.4 Summary.... .... .. .... ..... ... ..... .. .. .... ........... ........ ......... ....... 63 3. Research approach 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Study 1 (pre-school employees) 66 3.2.1 Participal1ts........................................................................ 66 3.2.2 Procedure 66 3.2.3 Questionnaire 67 3.2.3.1 Scales include 68 3.2.3.1.1. Indices 72 3.3 Study 2 (employees ofan insurance company). ............................ 82 3.3.1 Participants........................................................................ 82 3.3.2 Procedure 82 3.3.3 Questionnaire 82 3.3.3.1 Scales include 83 3.3.3.1.1 Indices 84 3.3.3.1.2 Conclusion 91 3.4 Study 3 (salespeople) 92 3.4.1 Participants 92 3.4.2 Procedure 92 3.4.3 Questionnaire 92 3.4.4 Scales included. ........... .... .. .... ... .. ... ... ..... ... ........... ....... 93 4. Results 95 4.1 Descriptive results 95 4.1.1 Introduction 95 4.1.2 Study 1: Descriptive results 96 4.1.3 Study 2: Descriptive results 98 4.1.4 Study 3: Descriptive results 99 4.2 Determinants ofwillingness to work 100 4.2.1 Introduction.. .... ... .. ... ..... ... ... .. ... ..... ............... ... ........ 100 4.2.1.1 Study 1.' Determinants of willingness to work 101 4.2.1.1.1 Conclusion 104 4.2.1.2 Study 2: Determinants ofwillingness to work 106 4.2.1.2.1 Conclusion 109 4.2.2 A structural model ofwillingness to work................. 111 4.2.2.1 Introduction.................................................................... 111 4.2.2.2 Study 1: Structural model ofwillingness to work 113 4.2.2.1.1 Model estimation and modification. ...................................... 114 4.2.2.3 Study 2: Structural model ofwillingness to work 117 4.2.2.3.1 Model estimation 117 4.2.2.4 Conclusion 119 4.3 Results ofconstruct validity studies 120 4.3.1 Introduction 120 4.3.1.1 The relationship between willingness to work and work-related behaviors. ................................................................................ 121 4.3.1.1.1 Conclusion 124 4.3.1.2 Willingness to work and other work motivation measures 126 4.3.1.3.1 Conclusion 128 11 4.3.1.3 Is willingness to work a more efficient measure ofwork motivation than the two traditional ones?..................................................... 129 4.3.1.3.1 Conclusion 132 4.3.1.4 Does work motivation in general predict work-related behaviors? .. 133 4.3.1.4.1 Conclusion 134 5. General discussion 135 5.1 A summary ofthe findings 135 5.2 Limitations 138 5.3 Further researc11.......................................... 140 6. References 142 7. Appendix. .