City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Yanardağoğlu, E. (2008). The Mediation of Cultural Identities: Changing Practices and Policies in Contemporary Turkey. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) This is the accepted version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/19553/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. 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City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] The Mediation of Cultural Identities: Changing Practices and Policies in Contemporary Turkey Eylem Yanardağoğlu A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy City University London Department of Sociology June 2008 1 Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................. 5 Declaration ................................................................................................. 6 Abstract ....................................................................................................... 7 Abbreviations ............................................................................................ 8 Chapter 1 Introduction What is this study about?.......................................................................... 9 What is my interest in this study? ............................................................ 18 The structure of the thesis ........................................................................ 25 Methodology ............................................................................................ 28 Chapter 2 Research on Cultural Diversity, Minorities and the Media in a European Context Introduction .............................................................................................. 41 An Overview of the Field......................................................................... 42 Nation, Media and Communicative Space ............................................... 47 Challenges to the Mediation of Cultural Identities in the European Context............................................................................ 54 Conclusion................................................................................................ 74 Chapter 3 National Identity Formation Minorities and Citizenship Practices in Turkey Introduction .............................................................................................. 76 Turkish Modernisation/Westernisation: an Overview ............................. 78 Late Ottoman Period and the Changing Structure of Ottoman Membership .................................................................................... 89 The Formation of the Republic ................................................................ 92 The Formation of National Identity and Citizenship................................ 96 The Economic and Cultural Assimilation of Non-Muslims..................... 101 The Cold War ........................................................................................... 104 Post-Cold War Developments ................................................................. 108 Turkey and the European Union .............................................................. 112 Conclusion................................................................................................ 119 2 Chapter 4 Mediation of cultural identities in the Turkish mainstream media structure: limitations and openings in the ‘market for loyalties’ Introduction .............................................................................................. 122 Mass Media in Turkey before the 1980s .................................................. 125 The Impact of the 1980 Military Intervention.......................................... 127 The Impact of the Globalisation of Media Policies on National Policies ............................................................................. 134 The Situation of the Broadcast Media in the 1980s and Early 1990s ...... 138 ‘Speaking Turkey!’................................................................................... 141 The Impact of the Consolidation of Media Ownership on Expressions of Diversity................................................................. 146 The Discovery of a ‘Multicultural’ Past in Popular Cultural Products .... 148 Dilemmas of External and Internal Diversity in the Turkish Media........ 152 The Impact of Europeanisation on the Mediation of Cultural Diversity.. 159 Conclusion................................................................................................ 162 Chapter 5 The Old Minority Media Regime: non-Muslim minorities and their media Introduction .............................................................................................. 166 Non-Muslim Minority Media in Turkey .................................................. 168 The ‘Double Role’ of Minority Media in the Maintenance of Cultural Identity.............................................................................. 179 The Transformation of the Old Minority Media System in Turkey......... 193 Conclusion................................................................................................ 200 Chapter 6 Europeanisation reforms and new practices for broadcasting in different languages Introduction .............................................................................................. 203 The Kurdish Taboo and the First Debates on Kurdish Broadcasting....... 205 Short-Term Reform Measures.................................................................. 211 Medium-Term Reform Measures............................................................. 212 The 3 rd Harmonisation Package and the First Regulatory Practice.......... 215 TRT ‘Speaks’ Kurdish.............................................................................. 225 The Implementation of New Legislative Measures in Local Private TV and Radio Broadcasts ............................................................... 231 Conclusion................................................................................................ 238 Chapter 7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 241 3 Appendices I. Chronology of Events During Europeanisation Reforms ..................... 259 II. Ideological Tendencies of Major Newspapers in Turkey ................... 261 III. Cross-Media Ownership in Turkey ................................................... 262 List of References ................................................................................... 263 4 Acknowledgements In many ways, studying for a PhD has been as much a process of personal growth as it has been one of intellectual and academic development. I consider myself lucky to have wonderful friends and colleagues who have always been there for me during this long and challenging period. I am first and foremost thankful to Professor Frank Webster and Professor John Solomos who have co-supervised this thesis. I am thankful to Frank for the interest he has shown in the topic and for always drawing my attention to pertinent academic works and debates over the years. His meticulous attention to detail and the directness of his feedback has always helped me to stay focussed on the requirements and objectives of this thesis. My most sincere thanks go to John, whose calm advice, constructive criticism and nuanced guidance has helped me to develop my thinking and academic ‘voice’ throughout the years. I am also indebted to John for helping me to find the courage and strength to carry on, even through the darkest times of the PhD. I am going to deeply miss all the nice chats we had about books, films, music and ‘life’ in general. I also would like to extend my gratitude to Professor Anthony Woodiwiss, whose expertise in human rights and interest in Turkey has been an invaluable contribution to the development of the thesis. Furthermore, I also wish to express my thanks to City University, which has generously funded this PhD from the beginning by granting me the School of Social Sciences bursary. This PhD has also been partly funded by Bilgi University in Istanbul. I also extend my many thanks to colleagues and friends in Bilgi University, including Professor Aydın Uğur, Dr. Ferhat Kentel, Esra Ercan Bilgiç, Ohannes Kılıçdağı and Alper Özçakır, for their help especially during the data collection phase of the thesis. Similarly, my thanks go to Professor Bülent Çaplı, Dr. Gülseren Adaklı, Hakan Tuncel and Dr. Burcu Sümer of Ankara University who have kindly supported me in various stages of my work. During the years of the PhD I have had the opportunity to meet with some very inspiring and interesting people who have made this experience so enriching. I extend my thanks to my fellow PhD students and