COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES, SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES CONSTRUCTING “WOMAN”: PROBING HOW THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF CHINAMWALI AMONG THE SHANGAAN PEOPLE IS USED TO CONSTRUCT ‘WOMANHOOD’ WILLIAM MUCHONO (215076052) A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Anthropology at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa SUPERVISOR: Prof. Maheshvari Naidu August 2018 DECLARATION This work is being submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD in Anthropology in the Faculty of Humanities, Development and Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Howard College, Durban, South Africa. I, William Muchono, hereby declare that this thesis is my own unaided work and has not been submitted previously for any degree or examination in any other university. All references, citations, and borrowed ideas have been duly acknowledged. Signed: Date: 20/08/18 As the Candidate’s supervisor, I agree to the submission of the thesis Supervisor: Professor Maheshvari Naidu Signed: Date: 20/08/18 i DEDICATION I dedicate this to my late daughter, Jean Anopa Muchono. I know you are in a safe place. Rest in Peace my Angel. I owe this achievement to the Almighty God. To my mother Lilian Muchono, my wife Nyasha Muhono, siblings and in-laws, this is for you. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe this success to God Almighty for the being faithful always. I could not achieve this without the grace that is upon me. I also want to acknowledge the people of Mahenye community – the chief, the headmen, men and women who shared their lived experiences, knowledge and understanding of their cultural practice of chinamwali/ khomba. Thank you for spending so much time sharing this crucial information with me. The study findings will not only contribute to my academic achievements, but will help, I hope, in policy formulation and support the women of Zimbabwe in general. I would like to acknowledge the contribution of my supervisor, Professor Maheshvari Naidu. You are an honest, reliable and hardworking supervisor. We have walked together through this journey of my PhD studies since 2015 and I have found you to be a conscientious and courteous supervisor who was willing to assist and motivate me in my studies. The journey was tough but you were there for me always. It is your support that kept me strong in my studies. I would like to thank Chief Mahenye for giving me the permission to do this research in his community. You were supportive during the period of my stay in your community. Thank you chief and your aides for the support and for believing in me as well. To my research assistant, Lingiwe, here is the outcome of our hard work. Thank you for your working so hard during fieldwork and data gathering. I would like to thank my siblings and in-laws for having confidence in me always and for the continual support. You believed in me and supported me all the way. To my wife, Nyasha Gloria Muchono, thank you sweetheart for the patience and for the love and encouragement. You always said you wanted to be the wife of the doctor and here it is for you, a doctoral degree in the family. I had some sleepless nights at home but you supported me throughout the journey. To my mother, Lillian Muchono, thank you for the encouragement and support Mama. Here is the achievement from your last-born son. You are a loving and caring mother, a pillar of strength, God bless you. To my grandmother, this is for you from your grandson. iii I would like to thank St Joseph’s House for Boys, Belvedere, Harare, Board of Governors, Management and the children for giving me this opportunity to pursue my studies. To my church (members), Harare City Central Church - United Church of Christ in Zimbabwe (UCCZ), thank you for your prayers and support. May the dear Lord bless you all and your families. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to Belvedere Cellgroup for your constant prayers and encouragement. I would also like to thank the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Howard Campus for covering my tuition fees, books and all study material that I used during my studies. I couldn’t have made it in three years without this kind of support from the institution. To all my friends, colleagues and classmates, thank you so much for the encouragement and support. I know some of you have been praying for my success and some are inspired with this great achievement. Aluta Continua guys! ABSTRACT This study aims to probe how the cultural practice of chinamwali among the Shangaan people is used to construct ‘womanhood’. The study probes the perceptions, understanding iv and lived experiences of the men and women who reside in the Mahenye community of Chipinge District (south eastern Zimbabwe) where chinamwali, (cultural rite of passage for girls and women) is practised. The study was premised on the understanding that the practice of chinamwali socially constructs or defines women in a particular (Mahenye) culture. Interview questionnaires and focus group discussions as well as observations were used to gather data from people in the Mahenye community in Zimbabwe. The study reveals that if a woman is not initiated she is considered no longer valuable in the community and tends to be a social outcast or to be excluded from several cultural activities. Keywords: chinamwali, social capital, female body, gender, womanhood, initiation, women and children’s rights v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. ix GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... x ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background to the study .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Justification of study ........................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Female initiation to adulthood/ ‘womanhood’ (Chinamwali/khomba) ............................ 4 1.3 ‘Womanhood’ .................................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Initiation rites/ Rite of passage (rite de passage)............................................................. 5 1.5 Research questions ........................................................................................................... 7 1.6. Research problems and objectives .................................................................................. 7 1.7 Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................... 8 1.8 Research design and research method ............................................................................. 8 1.9 Structure of the thesis....................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 12 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Review of literature........................................................................................................ 14 2.2 Reflections on culture .................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Societal expectations of initiation ceremonies ............................................................... 23 2.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................................................... 28 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Research site: Mahenye community .............................................................................. 28 3.1.1 Introduction of female participants ......................................................................... 31 3.1.2 Introduction of male participants ............................................................................ 32 3.2 Data collection techniques ............................................................................................. 33 3.2.1 Semi-structured interviews ..................................................................................... 34 3.2.2 Focus group discussions ......................................................................................... 35 3.2.3 Observation ............................................................................................................