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International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons 1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland Tel: +41.22.717 91 11 Fax: +41.22.798 61 50 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://www.iom.int ISBN 978-92-9068-453-4 © 2009 International Organization for Migration (IOM) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. 21_09 Gender Labour Migration in Asia Gender and Labour Migration in Asia Contents Foreword .................................................................................................. 7 Introduction .............................................................................................. 9 Overview ................................................................................................ 21 Sri Lanka ................................................................................................. 43 Bangladesh ........................................................................................... 121 Philippines ............................................................................................ 153 Thailand ................................................................................................ 193 Viet Nam ............................................................................................... 217 China .................................................................................................... 263 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 293 5 Gender and Labour Migration in Asia Foreword Migration is a global phenomenon, deeply affecting the lives of the 200 million migrants around the globe but also the lives of those connected to them, in particular those left behind in the countries of origin. Migration is a multi-facetted experience that encompasses opportunities for personal, social and economic development but also includes risks of violence, abuse and exploitation for men and women alike. The recognition of the social impacts of migration in countries of origin is the first step toward adopting the measures and policies needed to identify and address men and women’s vulnerabilities whether as migrants themselves, or as members of migrant households. The different scenarios examined through the six case studies in this volume, present situations in which women migrate independently, others in which men migrate and examples of migration of the parental couple. The far-reaching impact these patterns have on family dynamics, gender roles and the whole community, calls for a holistic approach to migration. This research study provides extremely valuable examples to better grasp the economic and social impacts of migration and I am confident that the policy recommendations drawn from these six case studies will enhance the debate on migration in Asia and in the rest of the world. I also hope that the very rich findings of this work will help countries experiencing high migration pressures to work toward lessening the negative social effects of migration and enable migrant men and women and their families to benefit from the highest level of safety and well-being. Therefore, this study must be seen as the starting point of a more comprehensive effort to enhance the positive effects migration can have on gender roles and children’s welfare in the communities of origin 7 and at the same time decrease its negative consequences. Only with a Foreword stronger understanding of the social dynamics involved in migration can the international community rightly address the needs of migrants and enhance their contribution to their host and home communities. 8 Gender and Labour Migration in Asia Introduction Dina Ionesco and Christine Aghazarm Research Officers International Organization for Migration 1. Gender and migration Gender is a cross-cutting migration issue and perhaps one of, if not the single most important factor shaping the migratory experience. Major steps have been taken in migration research resulting in a wealth of literature as well as field research, which clearly establishes gender as a crucial factor in our understanding of the causes and consequences of international and internal migration, and that gender is relevant to most, if not all, aspects of migration. Globally, international migration has become increasingly diversified as a result of recent global economic and geo-political changes, in addition to policy shifts. These changes may affect men and women differently, resulting in gendered patterns of migration. Laws and regulations ruling geographic mobility often have gendered outcomes; migrants are positioned differently within labour markets and the labour demand is often gendered according to different economic sectors. Furthermore, migration implies economic and social costs and benefits for either men or women migrants, which adds to gendered migration patterns and outcomes. Moreover, policies that affect the migration, the integration or the re- integration process of migrants into societies or communities may also affect men and women differently. This has implications for male and female migrants’ livelihoods and entitlements (Piper 2007). Gender-blind policies run the risk of proposing inappropriate responses and solutions to problems. For instance, research on diasporas shows that expectations differ within households; thus, programmes aiming to facilitate migrants’ return to their home countries should feature an array of financial and 9 professional incentives, as well as encouragements for children education, health provision and housing (IOM, MRS 26, 2006). Introduction 2. Gender - A key analytical tool Gender means socially constructed characteristics variously attributed to men and women, and is relational and culturally defined. It interacts with many other norms - ethnic, religious, cultural, social, educational and professional, among others. In addition, the gender analysis allows to study the interactions and power relations among men and women and highlights how power dynamics among men and women play out and are shared and institutionalized in family, community and government structures (IOM 2005a). It is important to highlight that gender specificities change over time and are significantly influenced by the migration experience. Thus, ‘gender’ is a dynamic notion which not only defines the difference between men and women, but also points to how these differences are created, evolve and play out throughout migration. Gender investigation explores the differences between men and women in a given social and economic context so that policies, programmes and projects can identify and meet their particular needs to respond to gender-specific equity objectives. The gender analysis is necessary to inform migration policy and programming. The gender analysis contributes to the understanding of the whole migration process and the linkages with development. The access to information about migration, the costs and opportunities of migration, the access to support services during the emigration and the return experience are all gender specific. Gender-specific investigation in migration studies: • defines the differences and similarities between the respective migration behaviours of men and women, as well as the impact of cultural, social, economic and political environments on gender specificities and how these specificities influence migration experiences; • allows a better understanding of the respective motivations and constraints of men and women to migrate in various contexts and the resulting migration trends, thus offering a better understanding of migratory flows; • provides insights on the individual and collective level regarding the 10 effect of migration and the departure of one or more persons of different sex on children, couples, families and communities and helps to explain the costs and benefits of migration; Gender and Labour Migration in Asia • draws attention to the issue of migrant rights and the potential vulnerability of women and men as migrants; for instance, categories such as female domestic workers subject to abuse at work and their residence, or male construction workers exposed to difficult living and working conditions; • facilitates a better understanding of labour dynamics, in particular that gender-segregated labour markets create specific demands for women and men migrant workers and that occupational gender segregation evolves over time; • draws attention to the links between migration and the informal economy