World Maritime University The Maritime Commons: Digital Repository of the World Maritime University World Maritime University Dissertations Dissertations 1986 Marine oil pollution and Saudi Arabia Mohamed S. Younes WMU Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations Recommended Citation Younes, Mohamed S., "Marine oil pollution and Saudi Arabia" (1986). World Maritime University Dissertations. 789. https://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations/789 This Dissertation is brought to you courtesy of Maritime Commons. Open Access items may be downloaded for non-commercial, fair use academic purposes. No items may be hosted on another server or web site without express written permission from the World Maritime University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Mi^RIHE OIL FOLLUTIOH AND SAUDI ARABIA BY: MOHAMED YOUHES WMU-MALM0-198G WORLD MARITIME UNIVERSITY MALMO - SWEDEN Mrf=iRIME: O I L ROLLUTIOrM <=»NE> S<=tur>l |C%R(!=»Ee I s OS/'EZFC^^LL R E F t S R E C T IV/E MOHAMED S. YDUNES SAUDI ARABIA A F-'aper submitted to the Faculty o-f the World Maritime University in partic'il sati s-f acti on o-f the requi rements •for the award o-f a MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE i n GENERAL MARITIME ADMINISTRATION The contents o-f this Paper reflect my personal v'iews and are? not necessarily endorsed by the UNIVERSITY Si gnciture: Date:, Ociah&f, Supervised and assessed by: Professor Aage Os Co-assessed by: & Co-assessed by: W. K 0 0 p s J. Bstergaard The North Sea Directorate National Agency of Rijswijk Environmental Protection The Netherlands Ministry of the Environment Denmark . • •« • . I; ti:i" i I ■:! !:Vi O : ; i W: ; i Ij): 0 i;i:i: Z:! 0 r : 0 ^V: 0 ; i;!:i;:^^^ ijHJ •Tv' I Wi!.I’’’ • ■■ I) ■ I • *1 I ■ m (S \M I*:- HVI iii-'i •:V ■* * ‘l tfa ••o:ij • UN (l.s t• .• i'fij I ■ :V W-il S l*w lAi) r-\-y ■>'V-' !ii) 1 r Wi!. m g g IK IKE Wmi OF GOD, HOST GEftCIODS, g g I-111 HOST RERCIFUL g I • m g (/}■} i-iAi hi'! ■ • ■ • <m m m m m mm m m mm • m • mm m ^ m m tm m ^ m m tm m mm m m mm m »m m m mm m mm m m m m am m m mm m m m m mm m mm m m mm mm m mm » «> m’m ■ ■ W: • hJ I.*J hJ •■. I.'J I.'J■*. I.*J I.*J /. /. W I.*.!I,'J/. W .*. W /. UJ / . l.'J .■/: I.'.! ■ '•1^—ji— • v ^•(i| (*w I/.J ■ •• DEDICATION iuir -: I-J- I*. l;WI.S ■ .■ t w (0 l*|V| To my country, Saudi Arabia .I'';.'.' as a gratitude to the favours with the hope that full use can be made of this work. \M I ■ VlO To the memory and the soul of my father, who T ■ had died before I accomplished this work. But treasuring the memories of his advice, rj *-2 ■ •• 1,1.0 encouragement and prayers were my real light in completing this work. May God Rest his 1,0 :1 soul peacefully in Heaven. r'* I-' I-Avr- flVl? ■ ; ■ ■ > • . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Before I mention the individual contributors to this thesis, I acknowledge that all thanks belong to God, Who participates in and oversees all human endeavor. I would like to express my esteem and profound respect to Professor A. Os, for his kindness, guidance, and promptness throughout the study. Deep gratitudes are presented to all the resident and visiting professors, and librarian for their invaluable academic help. Special thanks are due also to Capt. J. Horck for his assistance in arranging meetings with maritime personalities. I acknowledge with gratitude the maritime administrations and organisations in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, and United Kingdom, for the time they kindly spared during fruitful discussions regarding the topics and ideas presented in this thesis. Special appreciation is extended to IMQ, UNEP, MEPA, SAPA, PETRDMIN and ARAMCO for access to the very crucial materials published by them, and without which this study could not have been completed. ' Special thanks and appreciation are due to all my family, here and in Saudi Arabia, for their endless love, encouragement, patience, forgiveness, and prayers which were my real light in the past two hard-working years in this faraway hospitable country. As in the beginning, I end with my thanks and prayers of gratitude to Almighty God to Whom I submit my work and for Whose sake I finished it. From Him will be the reward. of=- coMnrEiiNjTS Aknowl edgement .............. iv Table o-f contents. v List o-f -figures, tables and maps ..................... , . , , INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I SAUDI ARABIA,THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS .......... Introduction....................................... The geography of the Area ... 7 Geography and oceanography of the ,Red Sea. 7 Marine resources of the Fl'ed Sea threatened by oil pollution1 ” General biology. ...................................... 10 - Fisheries. ^ ....................... 12 Bi Kds.............. I, ...... 14 -- Coral reefs. ...................... ..................... 17 - Coastal vegetation 5 -- Mangroves. .......... 19 ~ Seagrasses. ........... 21 Geography and oceanography of the Arabian Gulf.......... Marine resources of the Arabian Gulf threatened by oil pol 1 Lit ion - General biology ..................................... - Fi sher i es. .................. ....................... 28 -- Birds, ....... •30 “ Coral reefs ..... .................. 30 - Coastal vegetation.................. 31 References. ............................... ~v- CHAPTER II SOURCES OF OIL POLLUTION IN THE SAUDI ARABIAN MARINE ENVIRONMENT. •J'wJ Introduction. ......... 36 Statistical analysis of oil pollution in thf Marine Environment....... -- Methodology -for spill estimates, 37 - Terminology and assumption . 37 - Estimates -for oil pollution- 38 Natural seeps.................. 38 Of-fshore production. ........... 39 Tanker transportat i on. 42 Tanker cleaning and ballasting 44 Terminal operations............ 45 Total tanker-rel ated losses...... 46 Mon-tanker accident losses .... 47 Coastal refineries. ........ 47 Atmospheric fall-out..... 48 Coastal municipal wastes and coastal non—refinery wastes. 49 Urban run-off ............... 50 Summary of spill estimates 50 - Historical major oil spills in S.A.Marine Environmt... 54 - Fi'ecent major oil spills in S.A. Marine Environment.,,.. 56 - Properties fate of oils in the Ma^rine Environment... 58 Spreading, ..... ................ 59 Movement ................................ ....... 60 Weathering....... ......... 61 S i n k i n g ......... 3 "■■■'■'■''■■■■•'■•HMWaNaMNaMMBaaaMaWMNMMNBMnit 65 References. 66 CHAPTER III THE IMPACT OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE SAUDI ARABIAN MARINE ENVIRONMENT. ............... 67 Introduction.................................... 68 E-ffects of pol 1 uti on........ ........ ....... 70 - Toxicity of petrolium hydrocarbons........... 70 - Effects of petrolium hydrocarbons on marine communities 71 “ Effects on fisheries......................... 72 - Effects on humans.................. 77 - Effects on birds.. 79 -• Effects on corail reefs. ........... B1 “ Effects on coastal vegetation........... 84 -- Effects on beaches....... ........ 86 - Effects on industry................................ 87 Oil spill vulnerability mapping... 89 Effects of chemical dispersantss on the marine environment 92 References...... ......... ............................ 97 CHAPTER IV COMBATING OIL POLLUTION IN THE SAUDI ARABIAN MARINE ENVIRONMENT. .......... ..... 96 Introduction............... 97 Oil spill clean-up techni ques. .......... ............ ...99 - Chemical dispersants....................................99 - Physical removal 101 - Sinking....... .......... ....... ........................ 102 - Burn i ng . ........ 103 - Gelling agents...... ..'..103 - Natural dispersants. .................... 103 - Beach cleaning...... .104 Clean-up policy................................. 106 Designation of clean-up responsibi1ity.................... 107 Orgiini 2 ati on for clean-up response. .................... 108 -vi i - Manpower and equipment resources... ................. 110 Research and development capabi1ity....... ..... .111 ARAMCO Di1 Spi 11 Response Programme-.......................114 Regional agreements -for cooperation in oil spill combat... 118 “ Kuwai t Action PI an ...... ..................... 1 IB - Establishment of the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC) ............................ 120 “ R'€?d Sea and the Bulf of Aden. ........ 122 “ Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization (G A O C M A O ... 123 References........................................ 126 CHAPTER V PREVENTION OF OIL POLLUTION & LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS IN SAUDI ARABIA. ........................ 128 Introduction..............................................129 Islamic Principles for the protection and conservation of the mcirine environment. 131 “ Protection and conservation of all basic natural resources in Islam. ..................... ................ 131 - F-'rot6>ction of Man and the environment from outside factors and harmful impacts in Islam...................133 - Legislative Rules of Islamic Law which govern all procedures and measures for the protection and conservation of the environment. .................... 134 International Law of marine pollution.................... 140 - The U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea,1982.......... 141 - International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the seas by Oil,1954 (DILPDL,54)amended in 1962 and 1969- .............. 143 - International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pol 1ution,1969-.......... 144 International Convention -for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL 73) ............. .. ...145 “ International Convention on Civil Liability for