Advancing Australia: Cultural Diplomacy in the Menzies Era Khylie Paige Daws Bachelor of Arts (Honours) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) School of Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty of Arts and Education Deakin University 6 December 2016 Acknowledgments Dedication For Darren, without whom this would not be what it is, nor would I be who I am. Acknowledgements No thesis is written solo, and there are always many supporters to acknowledge. I was blessed to work with the Alfred Deakin Research Institute and Deakin University, where I was encouraged by some amazing people, in particular Tony Joel who put me on the path to research in my undergraduate course. Murray Noonan was ever encouraging and had a hand in editing drafts, and Chris Waters who was generous with encouragement and critical appraisal. During the course of writing I was fortunate to win a scholarship with the Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House which allowed me to pursue some personal profiling of the politicians working in the Menzies era. No candidate can ever adequately thank their supervisor, and to David Lowe I owe much more than I can write here. To my children who seemed to think mum would be a student forever, and to my own mum who believed I would finish- thank you. iv Abstract Advancing Australia: Cultural Diplomacy in the Menzies Era takes a look at four examples of cultural exchange which occurred during the 1950s and 60s, and examines them through the lens of cultural diplomacy theory. The Menzies Era is unique in Australian history as it was a period of almost two decades influenced by the Prime Ministership of Robert Menzies. The period shows a shift from a post-war recovery phase and moves toward a technology driven age. Menzies and the Ministers of the Department of External Affairs had a significant impact on the way Australia was seen in the world, and it was this period which saw an important refocussing of Australia’s position in the Pacific and Asian arena- advancing Australia into the international order. The term cultural diplomacy has no clear, agreed upon definition, and as such sees considerable debate. This thesis takes a look at the journey the study of cultural diplomacy has taken in its development, through soft power and public diplomacy, to be seen as an important part of the practice of diplomacy in its own right. The field of study was initially the preserve of diplomats, and as such much of the language surrounding it has been that of politics. As other academics have entered the field, the language has changed and the focus has shifted. Cultural diplomacy, in its simplest explanation, uses cultural exchange to support foreign policy aims. It is not designed to change or alter policy, but to complement it. This study of the current literature accepts that these cultural exchanges must be backed by government legislation and have an opportunity to build and develop long term relationships in order to be cultural diplomacy activities. Other significant considerations to the activities are that they be long term in order to endure changes in government; collaborative; contribute to nation branding or national identity; promote ideologies such as freedom, equality, or justice; consider citizen diplomats; and, by nature of involving culture as a creative expression, generally be enjoyable experiences. The Menzies Era saw the birth of the Colombo Plan. The first of the case studies in this thesis, this project saw bilateral aid arrangements brought under one umbrella in an attempt to help underdeveloped nations in South and South East Asia. A Commonwealth backed enterprise which involved nations around the globe saw material goods, education, and on the ground support utilised to improve living conditions and provide political stability in a long term project. Later in the decade, Australia was to host the first Olympic Games in the Southern Hemisphere in Melbourne. These games in 1956 saw a renewed push to promote Australia to an international audience and in the process reinforced the national identity domestically. As the first games to be subject to boycotts, this project highlights the role of cultural events for foreign policy. Citizen diplomats and a carnival atmosphere marked these as The Friendly Games in Olympic records. A decade later, Expo 67 was celebrated in Montreal, Canada, and Australia’s participation had both a cultural and political focus. The best of Australian culture was exported to be presented in a pavilion along with others from around the globe, and for six months guests were able to experience Australia at this exhibition. Highlighting a wealth of natural resources as well as technological expertise the government worked on presenting a national image favourable to increased trade and tourism. Through the whole of the Menzies Era and beyond, ran the Radio Australia broadcasts across the world. Conceived as a propaganda tool in World War Two, the Menzies government refocussed the program’s efforts to improve the Australian brand. By considering the needs of the audience, this v project began an educational program which would allow a deeper understanding of, and sympathy with, Australian culture. The foreign policy aims of the Department of External Affairs married with the broadcasting knowledge of the ABC to produce a cultural diplomacy style activity which involved collaboration, entertainment, and international understanding. As the final case study, this project highlights the ways an established cultural diplomacy style project can allow changes in message as relationships mature. These projects are just highlights of the many cultural diplomacy style activities which could be studied. This thesis does not make judgement, nor analyse success or failure of these cultural diplomacy styled activities. By using case studies the necessity of the breadth of considerations for cultural diplomacy activities is emphasized. The projects are all cultural exchange activities which were used to support foreign policy aims, all were backed by legislation and sought long term relationships. Their methods, time frames, budgets, and participants are all varied. They all describe how cultural exchange can be directed by, and affect, foreign policy. They all show that Advancing Australia, both domestically and internationally, is a political objective which can be effectively executed by cultural exchange. While the theory of cultural diplomacy may be relatively new, in practice these methods are well established. vi Contents Declaration of Originality ..................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................. iiv Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... v Contents ................................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... ix List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: Discovering Cultural Diplomacy ......................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Defining Cultural Diplomacy in Australia ....................................................... 17 2.1 Power ............................................................................................................................ 21 2.1 Soft Power ...................................................................................................................... 24 2.2 Diplomacy ...................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 3: Presenting Australia ........................................................................................... 49 3.1 Setting the Scene ............................................................................................................ 50 3.2 Australia in the World Under Menzies .......................................................................... 57 3.3 Current Scholarship on the Menzies Era ....................................................................... 65 Chapter 4: Developing Australia .......................................................................................... 73 4.1 History of International Aid ........................................................................................... 75 4.2 Point Four ....................................................................................................................... 77 4.3 The Colombo Plan ......................................................................................................... 81 4.4 Ten Years On ................................................................................................................. 94 4.5 Hemisphere .................................................................................................................... 95 4.6 The Seed of Freedom ................................................................................................... 100 4.7 ‘The Builders’ .............................................................................................................