View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive Breaking Boundaries: British Fascism from a Transnational Perspective, 1923 to 1939 MAY, Rob Available from Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA) at: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/26108/ This document is the author deposited version. You are advised to consult the publisher's version if you wish to cite from it. Published version MAY, Rob (2019). Breaking Boundaries: British Fascism from a Transnational Perspective, 1923 to 1939. Doctoral, Sheffield Hallam University. Copyright and re-use policy See http://shura.shu.ac.uk/information.html Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive http://shura.shu.ac.uk Breaking Boundaries: British Fascism from a Transnational Perspective, 1923 to 1939 Robert May A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Sheffield Hallam University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2019 I hereby declare that: 1. I have been enrolled for another award of the University, or other academic or professional organisation, whilst undertaking my research degree. I was an enrolled student for the following award: Postgraduate Certificate in Arts and Humanities Research University of Hull 2. None of the material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award. 3. I am aware of and understand the University's policy on plagiarism and certify that this thesis is my own work. The use of all published or other sources of material consulted have been properly and fully acknowledged. 4. The work undertaken towards the thesis has been conducted in accordance with the SHU Principles of Integrity in Research and the SHU Research Ethics Policy. 5. The word count of the thesis is 80,651 (excluding bibliography and footnotes) Name Robert May Award PhD Date of Submission July 2019 Faculty Department of Humanities Director(s) of Studies Professor Antony Taylor Abstract One of the most significant historical projects of the twenty-first century has involved the examination of important transnational circuits and interconnections. Historians have lagged behind many disciplines in accepting transnationalism as a serious form of investigation. Studying past events from a transnational perspective is important for historians. It challenges the assumption that ideologies, political cultures, economics, trade and societal organisation coincide within national boundaries and it allows us to analyse a party, group or ideology’s strengths and weaknesses on a different scale and on a separate stage, thus potentially uncovering the less apparent when viewed from a single-country viewpoint. This thesis seeks to identify and understand the role of transnationalism for the far right and fascism. Using a combination of mainly archival files, contemporary newspapers, pamphlets and periodicals, this study investigates the transnationalism of the three most important fascist movements operating in interwar Britain – the British Fascisti, the Imperial Fascist League and the British Union of Fascists. It uncovers previously unknown cross-border links and influences between British fascists and their overseas counterparts. Significantly, this is the first extensive investigation focused on the transnational British far right in the interwar period. Chapter One is on the British Fascisti. It uncovers transnational influences that allowed continental fascism to exercise control over the movement, the impact of Italian Fascism and German Nazism on the Fascisti as well as its overseas activities. Chapter Two focuses on the Imperial Fascist League. It analyses the ways in which the Nazis and the Fascists impacted on the ideological make up of the League, and the transnational physical links and influences relating to the British movement. Chapter Three examines the British Union of Fascists. Investigated in this chapter is the relationship between the movement and Mussolini and Hitler as well as the Union’s branches abroad and the organisation’s imperial policy. Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………….…………1 List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………...3 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………4 Literature Review………………………………………………………..........4 The Far Right in Britain………………………………………………............9 Aims and Scope of this Thesis…………………………………….............12 Note on Terms………………………………………………………………..13 Methodology and Sources ……………...................................................22 Theoretical Implications……………………………………………………..24 Current Research……………………………………………………............26 Chapter Outline……………………………………………………………….30 Chapter One: The British Fascisti……………………………………………….32 The Italian Fascist Influence………………………………………………...46 The Nazi Influence…………………………………………………………...55 The Quest to Become an Internationalist Movement………….…………56 Chapter Two: The Imperial Fascist League……………………………………96 ‘All for the State. None against the State’ (1929–1931)……...…...…....103 The Nazi Influence…………………………………………….……………116 Race……………………….…………………………………………116 Hitler versus Mussolini………………………………….………….124 The adoption of Nazi symbols and slogans………….……….....131 Nazis in Britain………………………………………………………...……134 Transnational physical links and influences with fascists abroad….….138 The Nazis……………………………………………………………138 Other overseas fascist movements………………….……………151 Chapter Three: The British Union of Fascists……………………………….157 Pre-BUF……………………………………………………………………………...165 Concept of a Corporate State……………………………………………………..178 Cosying up to Mussolini from the Outset………………………………………...182 ‘Mind Britain’s Business’…………………………………………………………...193 Branches Abroad………………………………………………………………...…197 Imperial Policy………………………………………………………………………200 Courting the Nazis……………………………………………………………….....203 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….239 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………..256 Acknowledgements When undertaking such a mammoth task as a PhD, it is impossible to do it alone. Therefore, I extend my sincere thanks to a number of people and organisations who have helped me to complete the journey. I must thank the helpful and knowledgeable staff at the various archives and libraries that I have visited (often more than once) during the course of my research, and scholars Graham Macklin, Paul Stocker, Paul Jackson and Stephen Dorril for their time and advice. I would like to thank the North of England Consortium for Arts and Humanities (NECAH) for accepting me on their programme and for providing me with a fully-funded studentship. I would also like to thank NECAH and its director, Martin Wilcox, for hosting doctoral training. Of course, the task of a student is made much more straightforward and, dare I say it, enjoyable when one has an excellent supervisor. I am fortunate to have had one in Professor Tony Taylor. He has provided first-class support, guidance as well as expert advice. I will miss our meetings held over coffee and soup at the café in Birmingham Central Library. I also offer my appreciation to Sheffield Hallam University. I could not have asked any more from a university. The support I have received from the staff there has been second to none. My deepest gratitude must go to Professor Matthew Feldman, Director of the Centre for the Analysis of the Radical Right (CARR). Although not connected to my project in any official capacity, Matthew has been a pillar of support (both academically and pastorally) since I began the thesis in 2015. Not only is Matthew a first-rate practitioner on the subject of the radical right but also a first- rate person. In terms of those outside the academic world, I would like to acknowledge the encouragement I have received from my family. Over the last several years, Christmas and birthday gifts from my mother, Jennifer, have consisted of subscriptions to various online archives and other academic-related expenses. I would like not only to thank her for this but for supporting me not just during this PhD but throughout my entire life. My biggest thanks is reserved for my partner, also Jennifer, for her loving support and tolerance over the last four years and beyond. A final thanks must go to my faithful, four-legged friend and companion, Milo, who has been by my side (literally) throughout this process, without even a whimper of an objection. 1 For my late father, Trevor, who would never have believed it. 2 List of Abbreviations BF – British Fascist BNP – British National Party BUF – British Union of Fascists CINEF - Centre International d’ Études Fascistes CNA – Canadian Nationalist Party CPGB – Communist Party of Great Britain EU – European Union FCC – Fascist Children’s Club GHQ – General Headquarters IFG - Imperial Fascist Guard IFL - Imperial Fascist League IHRA - International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance NF – National Front NSRP – American National States Rights Party OMS – Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies PCI – Partito Comunista Italiano PNF Partito Nazionale Fascista TUC – General Council of the Trades Union Congress UM – Union Movement 3 Introduction The transnational far right is currently flourishing. The unexpected Brexit vote to leave the European Union and the right-wing populist Donald Trump as President of the United States has galvanised far-right groups across the world. In Europe, the rise of Trump combined with an increase in jihadi Islamist terrorism and an influx of refugees escaping Middle Eastern and North African conflicts has led to a resurgence of far-right activity. Politically, the far right has