Simultaneous observations of aerosol–cloud–albedo interactions with three stacked unmanned aerial vehicles G. C. Roberts†, M. V. Ramana, C. Corrigan, D. Kim, and V. Ramanathan† Center for Atmospheric Sciences, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093 Contributed by V. Ramanathan, November 1, 2007 (sent for review August 14, 2007) Aerosol impacts on climate change are still poorly understood, in part, (13, 14). Several studies have not detected the expected effect of because the few observations and methods for detecting their effects aerosols on clouds, possibly because of variations in liquid water are not well established. For the first time, the enhancement in cloud path (15–17), and employ aerosol and cloud properties in radiative albedo is directly measured on a cloud-by-cloud basis and linked to transfer models to estimate radiative forcing. increasing aerosol concentrations by using multiple autonomous The two analytical expressions given below illustrate the unmanned aerial vehicles to simultaneously observe the cloud mi- dependence of cloud optical depth, ␶c, and cloud albedo, ␣c,on crophysics, vertical aerosol distribution, and associated solar radiative the cloud liquid water content, lwc; the effective radius, Reff; the fluxes. In the presence of long-range transport of dust and anthro- height of the cloud, h; the density of water, ␳w; and an asymmetry pogenic pollution, the trade cumuli have higher droplet concentra- parameter, g, for scattering of radiation by clouds. tions and are on average brighter. Our observations suggest a higher sensitivity of radiative forcing by trade cumuli to increases in cloud 3 lwc h ␶ ϭ droplet concentrations than previously reported owing to a con- c ␳ [1] 2Reff w strained droplet radius such that increases in droplet concentrations also increase cloud liquid water content. This aerosol-cloud forcing ͑ Ϫ ͒␶ 1 g c [efficiency is as much as ؊60Wm؊2 per 100% percent cloud fraction ␣ ϭ . [2 c 2 ϩ ͑1 Ϫ g͒␶ for a doubling of droplet concentrations and associated increase of c liquid water content. Finally, we develop a strategy for detecting Eq. 2 is a highly simplified expression that is derived by employing aerosol–cloud interactions based on a nondimensional scaling anal- the two-stream approximation (18) to the radiative transfer equa- ysis that relates the contribution of single clouds to albedo measure- tion and by assuming that the drops do not absorb solar radiation. ments and illustrates the significance of characterizing cloud mor- Neither of the two simplified expressions nor the assumptions used phology in resolving radiometric measurements. This study to derive them are used in sophisticated modeling studies, but are demonstrates that aerosol–cloud–albedo interactions can be directly written here to convey the essential physics of the aerosol–cloud observed by simultaneous observations below, in, and above the interactions. clouds. To this end, the Maldives AUAV Campaign (MAC) demon- strates the ability to observe aerosol and cloud microphysical autonomous unmanned aerial vehicle ͉ cloud condensation nuclei ͉ properties and solar radiation fluxes simultaneously by using indirect effect ͉ Maldives AUAV Campaign ͉ long-range transport emerging technology (i.e., autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles, AUAVs) as new tools in atmospheric sciences (19). The MAC ince the introduction of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- results presented here demonstrate that it is possible to directly Smate Change (IPCC) nearly two decades ago, the uncertainty observe the aerosol–cloud–albedo interactions and establish the of the impact of anthropogenic aerosols has remained the least link between aerosols and clouds—and ultimately, between changes constrained radiative forcing component in understanding global in aerosols and subsequent changes in cloud radiative properties. climate change. Aerosols are generally considered to exert a cooling We also compare the relative contribution of the aerosol direct and effect at the earth’s surface by directly scattering incoming solar indirect effects, deduced directly from aircraft measurements to radiation back to space (1) or influencing cloud properties such as demonstrate the capabilities of a new observing system for address- enhancing cloud albedo (2) and lifetime (3). For the first time, the ing long-standing problems in atmospheric sciences. IPCC 2007 assessment (4) provides a best estimate for the aerosol Ϫ Ϯ Ϫ ϩ0.4 Ϫ2 direct and indirect effects ( 0.5 0.4 and 0.7Ϫ1.1 Wm globally, Results respectively); however, the magnitude of the uncertainty is still Part I: Aerosol–Cloud Relationship. MAC is characterized by the more than a factor of 2 greater than those estimates and is still arrival of a persistent, elevated aerosol layer to an already polluted greater than the sum of uncertainties of all other components boundary layer and is categorized into two periods based on vertical contributing to climate forcing (i.e., greenhouse gases, ozone, surface albedo, and solar irradiance). profiles of aerosols and key atmospheric state parameters (Fig. 1; Table 1). During period I of the experiment, aerosol transport is The effect of aerosols on cloud microphysical and radiometric Ͻ properties, known as the ‘‘indirect effect,’’ consists of a two-part mostly confined to the boundary layer ( 1,000 m above sea level, challenge—(i) response of cloud droplet number, nD, and cloud liquid water path to a change in aerosols and (ii) response of cloud ␣ Author contributions: G.C.R. and V.R. designed research; G.C.R., M.V.R., C.C., D.K., and V.R. albedo, c, caused by changes in cloud microphysical properties. performed research; G.C.R. and D.K. contributed new reagents/analytical tools; G.C.R., C.C., Aerosols are linked to cloud droplet formation by their physico- and M.V.R. analyzed data; and G.C.R. and V.R. wrote the paper. chemical properties (5) and cloud dynamics such as updraft velocity The authors declare no conflict of interest. (6), entrainment (7), and precipitation (3); whereas cloud radiative †To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: [email protected] or properties are determined by the number and size distribution of [email protected]. droplets and the cloud’s geometric thickness (2). Numerous studies This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/ have demonstrated that an increase in aerosols increases nD (8–12); 0710308105/DCSupplemental. however, fewer have actually measured the impact of aerosols on ␣c © 2008 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA 7370–7375 ͉ PNAS ͉ May 27, 2008 ͉ vol. 105 ͉ no. 21 www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0710308105 Downloaded by guest on September 25, 2021 Fig. 1. Vertical profiles of total aerosol concentration (a), relative humidity (b), temperature (c), and equivalent potential temperature (d) are shown for each period. Thick lines show average profiles and shading designates 1-␴ variability. Horizontal dashed lines show average sampling altitudes of the in-cloud AUAV. Lifting condensation levels (LCLs) are shown by plus (period I) and square (period II) markers on left axes. masl), whereas period II is characterized by an aerosol layer that between cloud microphysical properties and aerosol number con- Ϫ3 peaks at 2,000 masl (Ϸ2,500 cm ). Aerosol concentrations, NCN, centrations, in particular, CCN. Vertical profiles of aerosols and at the surface are relatively high in both periods (1,000–1,250 cmϪ3) comparisons with ground observations at MCOH (Fig. 1) indicate compared with clean marine conditions of a few hundred cmϪ3 a well mixed boundary layer, which allows a reasonable comparison (20). Wind fields above the boundary layer (850 mbar) change from between ground-based CCN measurements and cloud observations an easterly flow south of the Maldives associated with the Inter- (23, 24). The MAC observations show a Ϸ40% increase in nD tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a northwesterly flow that during period II, which is inextricably linked to the change in aerosol carries long-range transport of pollution to the Maldives from the properties (25) (i.e., shift in size distribution) and enhancement in Arabian Peninsula and South Asia. Although NCN in the boundary NCCN࿝0.1 (Fig. 3). NCCN࿝0.1 correlate to maximum cloud droplet 2 layer does not significantly change on the arrival of the elevated concentrations, nD,max (r ϭ 0.62; Fig. 3); however, the correlation 2 layer, the new aerosol (presumably aged anthropogenic emissions is stronger during period I (r ϭ 0.89) when a NCCN࿝0.1:nD,max ratio and dust) causes a shift in the size distribution at the surface and of 0.86 Ϯ 0.09 indicates peak in-cloud Sc close to 0.1%. Changes in aloft (21), and doubles the accumulation mode diameter (Fig. 2a). aerosol properties increase nD in period II, and the NCCN࿝0.1:nD,max Ϯ Such a shift in aerosol size distributions affects the subset of ratio decreases (0.63 0.09), which is indicative of lower in-cloud SCIENCES aerosols that serve as seeds for cloud formation, i.e., cloud con- Sc. The marked difference in the NCCN࿝0.1:nD,max relationship be- ENVIRONMENTAL densation nuclei (CCN). Indeed, the CCN spectra change, espe- tween the periods suggests more competition for water vapor cially at low Sc, as concentrations at 0.1% Sc, NCCN࿝0.1, and increase during period II either from enhancement of CCN that activate at by 60% in period II (Fig. 2b; Table 1). Activation indices, the ratio lower Sc, changes in vertical velocity, or entrainment of drier air of the observed critical diameter to that of a soluble salt (22), were from the aerosol layer above the clouds. close to unity at 0.1% Sc in both periods, indicating that activated particles contain a large soluble fraction. The CCN spectra ap- Part II: Cloud–Albedo Relationship. The results in part I establish proach the soluble limit at lower supersaturations (Fig.