University of Groningen Frozen assets Kruse, Frigga IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2013 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): Kruse, F. (2013). Frozen assets: British mining exploration, and geopolitics on Spitsbergen, 1904-53. [S.n.]. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). The publication may also be distributed here under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license. More information can be found on the University of Groningen website: https://www.rug.nl/library/open-access/self-archiving-pure/taverne- amendment. Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 06-10-2021 Frozen Assets: British mining, exploration, and geopolitics on Spitsbergen, 1904-53 Circumpolar Studies Volume 9 Circumpolar Studies is a series on Dutch research in the Polar Regions published by the Arctic Centre of the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. For other titles in the series, see the website of the publisher at www.barkhuis.nl. This research was funded by the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (GIA) of the University of Groningen as part of the University’s Ubbo Emmuis Scholarship Programme. NWO AWL financially supported the LASHIPA expeditions to Spitsbergen (Svalbard) as part of the International Polar Year (IPY). Cover photograph: D. Avango. Cover design: Nynke Tiekstra, ColtsfootMedia, Rotterdam. Book design: Barkhuis Publishing, Eelde. ISBN: 9789491431333 © 2013 F. Kruse Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets van deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigt, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de auteur. All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in written form from the author. RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GRONINGEN FROZEN ASSETS British mining, exploration, and geopolitics on Spitsbergen, 1904-53 Proefschrift ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de Faculteit der Letteren aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, dr. E. Sterken, in het openbaar te verdedigen op 19 december 2013 om 9.00 uur door Frigga Kruse geboren op 19 januari 1978 te Rendsburg, Duitsland. Promotor: Prof. dr. L. Hacquebord Copromotor: Dr. D. Avango Beoordelingscommissie: Prof. dr. M.G.J. Duijvendak Prof. dr. P. Jordan Prof. dr. L.E. Lobo-Guerrero Dr. M. Oglethorpe Table of contents Conversion tables xi Dedication xiii PART I – INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 1 Introduction and contextualisation 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 The central research question and hypothesis 4 1.3 The research context 6 1.4 The theoretical context 8 1.5 Previous work 13 1.6 Sources and methods 17 1.6.1 The archaeological record 18 1.6.2 Contemporary documentation 23 1.7 The composition of the study 27 2 Britishness 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 The coal industry 29 2.3 The Empire 38 2.4 Contributions to polar exploration 41 2.5 Perceptions of polar adventures 45 PART II – THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL IMAGE 49 3 The Archaeology of Arctic Mining 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 The Spitzbergen Coal & Trading Company 52 3.2.1 Site narrative 53 Advent City 53 3.2.2 Site interpretation 61 3.3 The Spitzbergen Mining & Exploration Syndicate 67 3.3.1 Site narratives 68 Camp Morton 68 Camp Bell 77 3.3.2 Site interpretations 78 3.4 Conclusion 83 4 The Archaeology of Arctic Exploration 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 The Northern Exploration Co. 85 4.2.1 Site narratives 86 4.2.1.1 Coal 86 Camp Morton 86 Camp Smith 86 Camp Violet 88 Calypso Beach 90 Davis Harbour 93 4.2.1.2 Metal ores 95 Camp Millar 95 Lægerneset 98 Iron Mountain Camp 99 Copper Camp 104 Zinc Island 105 Duck Island 106 Icefiord Zinc and Lead Mine 107 4.2.1.3 Minerals 109 Camp Zoe 109 Tinayre Bay 111 Marble Island 112 Storholmen 118 Juttaholmen 119 Camp Asbestos 120 4.2.1.4 Other 122 Ebeltoft Haven 123 Camp Svendsen 125 Isbjorn Haven 125 Cape Borthen 125 Camp Gilson 126 Camp Parry 126 Camp Sabine 126 Camp Scoresby 126 Camp Franklin 126 4.2.2 Site interpretations 128 4.3 The Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate 131 4.3.1 Site narratives 132 4.3.1.1 Prince Charles Foreland 132 Point McVitie 132 Inchcolm hut 133 Kenmore 135 Richard Lagoon 137 4.3.1.2 Bruce City 141 4.3.1.3 Gips Bay and Gips Valley 146 4.3.2 Site interpretations 153 4.4 Conclusion 155 PART III – THE HISTORICAL IMAGE 157 5 The Spitzbergen Coal & Trading Co., Ltd. (1904-18) 159 5.1 Introduction 159 5.2 Formation and chronological overview 159 5.3 The global network 164 5.3.1 Economic actors 164 5.3.2 Political actors 169 5.3.3 The Arctic Coal Co. 175 5.4 The local network 180 5.4.1 Claims and resources 180 5.4.2 Manifestations 183 5.4.3 Employees 189 5.4.4 Products 194 5.5 Summary and conclusion 196 6 The Spitzbergen Mining & Exploration Syndicate, Ltd. 203 (1906-11) 6.1 Introduction 203 6.2 Early claims and company promotion 203 6.3 Formation and chronological overview 207 6.4 The global network 210 6.4.1 Economic actors 210 6.4.2 Political actors 213 6.4.3 Competitors 218 6.5 The local network 219 6.5.1 Claims and natural resources 219 6.5.2 Manifestations 223 6.5.3 Employees 229 6.5.4 Products 231 6.6 Summary and conclusion 232 7 The Northern Exploration Co., Ltd. (1910-34) 239 7.1 Introduction 239 7.2 Formation and chronological overview 239 7.3 The global network of the private company 242 7.3.1 Economic actors 242 7.3.2 Political actors 247 7.3.3 Other allies 249 7.3.4 Competitors 251 7.4 The local network of the private company 252 7.4.1 Claims and natural resources 252 7.4.2 Manifestations 258 7.4.3 Employees 262 7.4.4 Local allies 268 7.4.5 Products 269 7.5 The First World War 271 7.5.1 Global changes... 271 7.5.2 ... local responses 276 7.6 The global network of the public company 281 7.6.1 Economic actors 281 7.6.2 Political actors 283 7.6.3 Other allies and competitors 286 7.7 The local network of the public company 288 7.7.1 Claims and natural resources 288 7.7.2 Manifestations 294 7.7.3 Employees 297 7.7.4 Local allies 299 7.7.5 Products 300 7.8 Post-war depression 302 7.9 Ratification of the Spitsbergen Treaty 313 7.10 Final efforts, sale, and dissolution 316 7.11 Summary and conclusion 320 8 The Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate, Ltd. (1909-53) 329 8.1 Introduction 329 8.2 Formation of the first syndicate and chronological overview 329 8.3 The global network of the first syndicate 334 8.3.1 Economic actors 334 8.3.2 Political actors 336 8.3.3 Other allies 340 8.3.4 Competitors 342 8.4 The local network of the first syndicate 344 8.4.1 Claims and resources 344 8.4.2 Employees and local allies 349 8.4.3 Manifestations and products 350 8.5 The First World War 351 8.6 Formation of the second syndicate and chronological 359 overview 8.7 The global network of the second syndicate 361 8.7.1 Economic actors 361 8.7.2 Political actors 366 8.7.3 Other allies 367 8.7.4 Competitors 368 8.8 The local network of the second syndicate 369 8.8.1 Claims and natural resources 369 8.8.2 Manifestations and technologies 384 8.8.3 Employees 388 8.8.4 Local allies 392 8.8.5 Products and achievements 394 8.9 The Danish Commission 399 8.10 Marking time 403 8.11 The expiry of the treaty properties 407 8.12 A subsidiary company and voluntary liquidation 410 8.13 Summary and conclusion 415 PART IV – THE COMBINED IMAGE 423 9 Four British companies on Spitsbergen: discussion and 425 conclusion 9.1 Introduction 425 9.2 Why were the British companies started? 425 9.3 How did the companies choose to operate and why? 428 9.4 Why were the companies discontinued? 431 9.5 What were the economic, political, and environmental 436 consequences? 9.6 Conclusion 438 Acknowledgments 441 References 443 Appendix 1 – Place-names used in the text 453 Appendix 2 – Staff of the Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate 458 Appendix 3 – Learned papers of the Scottish Spitsbergen 461 Syndicate English summary 464 Nederlandse samenvatting 465 Conversion tables Length Metric Imperial 1 millimetre (mm) 0.03937 in 1 centimetre (cm) 10 mm 0.3937 in 1 metre (m) 100 cm 1.0936 yd 1 kilometre (km) 1,000 m 0.6214 mile Imperial Metric 1 inch (in) 2.54 cm 1 foot (ft) 12 in 0.3048 m 1 yard (yd) 3 ft 0.9144 m 1 fathom 6 ft 1.8288 m 1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km 1 int’l nautical mile 2,025.4 yd 1.853 km Area Metric Imperial 1 sq cm (cm2) 100 mm2 0.1550 in2 1 sq m (m2) 10,000 cm2 1.1960 yd2 1 hectare (ha) 10,000 m2 2.4711 acres 1 sq km (km2) 100 ha 0.3861 mile2 Imperial Metric 1 sq inch (in2) 6.4516 cm2 1 sq foot (sq ft) 144 in2 0.0929 m2 1 sq yd (yd2) 9 sq ft 0.8361 m2 1 acre 4,840 yd2 4046.9 m2 1 sq mile (mile2) 640 acres 2.59 km2 Volume Metric Imperial 1 cu cm