A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE IN ATHLETES WITH IMPAIRMENTS NIMA DEHGHANSAI A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN KINESIOLOGY AND HEALTH SCIENCE YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO March 2021 © Nima Dehghansai, 2021 ii Abstract Objective: The overarching purpose of this dissertation was to provide an overview of impairment-related factors that influence Paralympic sport (PS) athletes’ sporting trajectory by examining various stages of the pathway including initiation and recruitment, development, and transfer. First, a modified version of Newell’s constraints-led model was introduced to collate current literature and highlight the complexity of the factors that facilitate or debilitate development. Second, the demographic and sporting characteristics of participants attending the Paralympian Search events were examined with subsequent recommendations to optimize this process. Third, a detailed overview of Australian and Canadian Paralympic sport athletes’ developmental trajectories, training histories, and experience in organized sports was explored while controlling for athletes’ onset of impairment. Last, factors impacting athletes’ decision to retire and/or transfer between sports were identified, which led to propositions to optimize initiatives to support athletes’ transfer. Methods: This dissertation used a concurrent mixed-methods approach by using the Paralympian Search survey to collect data for study 1 (Chapter 3), a modified Developmental History of Athletes’ Questionnaire (DHAQ) to collect data for study 2 (Chapters 4, 5, and 6), and semi-structured interviews to gain insight to coaches and athletes’ perspective of talent transfer (study 3, Chapter 7). A descriptive analysis along parametric (ANOVAs and Bonferroni post-hoc tests) and non-parametric (Kruskal-Wallis tests with Mann-Whitney U post-hoc procedures) tests were used to examine the quantitative data while thematic analysis guided the exploration of the qualitative data. Results: Several key findings were identified across the studies including 1) the lack of female athletes or participants from rural areas at the Search events, 2) transfer being perceived as an iii alternative to retirement, yet, currently only being implemented informally in ‘less than ideal’ conditions, and the 3) strong synergy between athletes’ previous (Paralympic and able-bodied) sports to their current PS. However, the most notable finding was the influence of impairment- onset on athletes’ sporting trajectories. More specifically, athletes with congenital and early- acquired impairments (pre-adolescence, adolescence) reached developmental and performance milestones at younger chronological ages than athletes with late-onset impairment (acquired during adulthood), while the latter groups ‘fast-tracked’ to achieve these milestones at an earlier point in their careers. There were no significant differences in the amount of training accumulated over athletes’ careers; however, each group demonstrated a different training profile (i.e., hours devoted to each training condition varied between groups). In addition, athletes with impairments acquired during adulthood incorporated some of the training conditions earlier in their careers in comparison to athletes with a congenital or early-onset impairment. Conclusions: The collation of findings suggests different resources may be necessary for athletes at different stages of their careers depending on when the onset of impairment occurred, including more specialized pathways with access to key resources for athletes with late-onset impairments and opportunity for multi-sport programs for athletes with congenital and early- onset impairments. In addition, there is a need for initiatives to support the involvement of more female athletes, participants in rural areas, and athletes looking to transfer sports. However, the complexity and dynamics of development, including impairment-related factors, emphasize the need to consider more in-depth, individualized approaches to understanding athlete development in the Paralympic context. iv Dedication To my parents, Changez Dehghansai and Mehri Masodian, who left their home, families, friends, and childhood memories for better opportunities for me and my brother. Your selfless act of kindness and forward-thinking drives me every day to be the best I can be. I owe it to you and to myself to maximize this amazing opportunity you have given me to prosper and succeed in a country where ideologies and beliefs do not separate human beings (thanks for not going south of the border). To the wise man who never ran out of words of encouragement, patience, or kindness. You were always there for me during the darkest times. You are the one that said, “It is better to jog at a steady pace than sprint and burn out before the finish line.” And for that, I blame you for my slow marathon times and taking five years to finish this degree. Thank you, brother, Nick Dehghansai, for being everything a brother can ask for and more. Words truly can’t explain the impact you’ve had and continue to have in my life. Cheers Mate. And of course, to the beautiful, strong, and smart woman who stood by my side and kept me sane through this journey, Darya Alistratenko (soon to be Dehghansai?). Thank you for being my rock and having the patience to listen to my day-to-day issues with excel sheets. I know you deeply cared about why certain cells did not activate and why some formulas did not work. You’ve watched me grow (more grey hairs) in the past five years, and I look forward to starting the next chapter in our exciting journey. v Acknowledgments To the man who believed in me when I didn’t in myself. My supervisor and mentor, Dr. Joe Baker, who patiently has put up with my BS for nearly a decade (that is not a typo). I appreciate your trust in me when I did not know what I was capable of. I’m not sure if you just felt bad or genuinely saw what I could not but, all I had was effort and you allowed me to grow under your supervision. For your patience, guidance, wisdom, and (occasional) humor, I am thankful. You have inspired me in many ways beyond what an academic achievement could bring. I could write another dissertation on how much of an impact you’ve had in my life, but you like content that is short and concise, so I’ll keep it to this paragraph. Thank you. From now on, I promise to reduce the number of daily emails from five to three. Dr. Ross Pinder – my unofficial co-supervisor. Who would have thought that a video call in 2015 would lead to two trips to Australia and a research project that expanded to more than I could dream of? I’m sure with your vision, you probably saw these projects unfold before they did, but as you always do, you presented them in progression, as ‘nugget’ pieces as Alois would say. Thank you for your continuous support in my academic, professional, and personal life. Your mentorship, guidance, and support throughout the past 5 years cannot be appreciated with words, so I offer to take you to an Indian restaurant. Reflecting on the opportunities and the support you provided might let me forgive you for trying to kill me numerous times. You now see the persistence of this Persian man. Thanks for the whiskey and record sessions, pints, food trucks, and opportunity to work alongside you and the amazing HP staff, coaches, and athletes. I look forward to continuing our working relationship for many years to come. P.s., I will have to admit, I was in my boxers during our very first video call … I would also like to thank Drs. Jessica Fraser-Thomas and Rebecca Basset-Gunter for your feedback, support, and guidance throughout my graduate degree(s). I appreciate your constructive yet supportive feedback and your ability to take a moment in your busy schedules to provide your undivided attention and expertise whenever needed. I am grateful for having such great labbies. Shrutz and Lou (I will withhold the nickname to save you the grace, my friend), thank you for your immediate responses and support whenever I was in a complete meltdown. Especially during these past two years, when there was a wall, you gave me a ladder, and when there was no ladder, thanks for sitting against the wall with me (shoutout to the unemployed ***). I look forward to having that lunch with you two in 2050. My other labbies, you guys are awesome man. This journey would not have been as pleasant without your involvement. We’ve had some great times. Katie Johnston, Sandy Mosher, Stu Wilson, Dale Lablans, Jesse Korf, and even you, Aaron Koenigsberg. Thank you! Many conferences are memorable, but shoutout to Munster Boys, you know who you are, Bike Gang4Life! vi Nick Wattie and Srdjan Lemez, thank you for your expertise whenever needed. You guys are legends (yes, I am a few bottles in). It’s been a hell of a journey and your support from the beginning has been immense. Lemon, now that I’ve finally finished this PhD, maybe it’s time for your Pistons to finally make a playoff run? On second thought, it’s more likely for me to get another PhD degree… And to my friends, Arian, Faraz, Imran, Jason, Steve, who, for the past two years, have heard the same response of “I’m almost done” and yet, never doubted me (at least not to my face). Thanks for your understanding when I missed the important dates to try to get this done. Now, I will have to come up with another excuse to avoid seeing your faces … Last, I’d like to thank all the amazing coaches, athletes, and organizations that helped this project develop into what it is. A special thanks to Alois Rosario and Sue Stevenson from Para Table-Tennis Australia for saying yes to literally every project or idea we presented to you.