Religion, Culture, and Conflict: Faith-Inspired Women Peacebuilders Working to End the War on Drugs in the Philippines A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts In the Department of Religion and Culture University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Canada By Marissa Grace Alarcon © Copyright Marissa Grace Alarcon, March 2019. All Rights Reserved PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department of Religion and Culture or the Dean of the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or make other use of the material in this thesis/dissertation in whole or in part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Religion and Culture St. Thomas More College 1437 College Drive Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W6 Canada OR Dean College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada i ABSTRACT Media reports of over 12,000 lives lost since July 1, 2016, and the other alleged human rights violations noted in the Philippines’ war on drugs, attracted the attention of people globally. The increasing number of victims has prompted human rights advocates, peacebuilders, and religious organizations including the Roman Catholic Church to urge the Philippine government to seek a sustainable solution to end the war on drugs and promote nonviolent, peacebuilding alternatives. This thesis will describe one such alternative, brought into being by the roles of faith- inspired women in peacebuilding, and examine the crucial involvement of faith-inspired women peacebuilders in effective and robust peacebuilding in the country. The purpose of this research is to discern emerging issues along with the actual and possible roles of faith-inspired women peacebuilders in the Philippines. With proper consultation, implementation, and support from faith-based organizations including women peacebuilders, nonviolent alternatives and approaches can and are being employed. This thesis aims to prove that faith-inspired women’s participation in developing nonviolent strategies to address drug abuse plays a significant role in fostering cultures of peace in the Philippines. Further, better understanding of the roles of faith-inspired women peacebuilders in the war on drugs could have a positive effect on empowering women and create collaboration with their counterparts abroad, gaining more support from international peacebuilding communities. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Christopher Hrynkow, for his patience, guidance, encouragement, and unending support throughout the thesis writing process. His valuable knowledge and contributions to my work are immeasurable. I would also like to thank my Thesis Advisory Committee, Dr. Mary Ann Beavis and Dr. Cynthia Wallace, who provided excellent input and insights from my proposal defence up to the final stages of the writing process. To my external examiner, Dr. Maureen Flaherty, I also extend my gratitude for offering helpful advice and inspiration that contributed to the successful completion of this thesis. Thank you also to the following: • The University of Saskatchewan Global Engagement Scholarship: for funding my travel to the Philippines to conduct my interviews and gather resources not available in Canada. • My editor, Therese Jelinski: for generously sharing her knowledge, expertise and time in editing my thesis, and for her continued support and encouragement. • All my research participants: for sharing their time, knowledge, experiences, stories, and contributions to help address the issues of the Philippines’ war on drugs. • Dr. Heidi Epstein: for her support when I took her class, and for arranging the Colloquium so that I could present my thesis. • Dr. Alisha Pomazon: for graciously sharing her time in chairing my thesis defence. • Sandra Kary and the Catholic Health Association of Saskatchewan Board of Directors: for all their support and encouragement. • Dr. Mary (Deutscher) Heilman: for sharing her knowledge and expertise in ethics and research. iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my husband and children, and all my families and friends for their support, encouragement, and unconditional love. To my brother, whom I made reference a few times in this work; you may be gone now, but you are always loved and never forgotten. Most of all, this thesis is dedicated to you, Lord, my source of wisdom, strength, and life. To God be the glory! iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ALS Alternative Learning System AWIT Association of Women in Theology CBCP Catholic Bishop Conference of the Philippines CBR Community-Based Rehabilitation CBRP Community-Based Rehabilitation Program CCF Christ Commission Fellowship Comelec Commission on Election DDB Dangerous Drugs Board Dep.Ed Department of Education DILG Department of the Interior and Local Government DOH Department of Health EWF Ecumenical Women’s Forum FBO Faith-Based Organization GI General Intervention LGU Local Government Unit LRA Lord’s Resistance Army MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front NGO Non-Government Organization PNP Philippine National Police PS Police Station RA Republic Act SCMP South China Morning Post SDU Surrendering Drug User SIPAG Simula sa Pag-asa (Start from Hope) SONA State of the Nation Address TESDA Technical Education and Skills Development Authority UN United Nations US United States v TABLE OF CONTENTS PERMISSION TO USE .……………………………………………………… i ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .………………………………………………….. iii DEDICATION ...……………………………………………………………… iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .………………………………………………... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ..……………………………………………………. vi LIST OF TABLES .…………………………………………………………… vii CHAPTER ONE – Introductory Chapter …………………………………….. 1 1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Thesis Structure …………………………………………………………… 5 1.3 Significance and Scope of the Thesis ……………………………………... 7 1.4 Methodology ……………………………………………………………… 10 CHAPTER TWO – Philippines’ War on Drugs ………………………………. 18 2.1 Historical Background of the War on Drugs in the Philippines ……………19 2.1.1 War on Drugs in the United States ……………………………. 23 2.1.2 War on Drugs in Colombia ……………………………………. 27 2.2 The Philippine Government’s Culture of Violence ……………………….. 29 2.3 Drug Dealers’ and Users’ Culture of Violence ……………………………. 32 2.4 Government’s and Non-Government Organizations’ Initiatives ………...... 35 2.4.1 General Intervention and Community-Based Rehabilitation ….. 38 CHAPTER THREE – The Role of Religion in the Philippines ..……………… 46 CHAPTER FOUR – Literature Review ……………………………………….. 53 4.1 Women, Religion, and Peacebuilding ……………………………………... 53 4.2 Peacebuilding and Religion ………………………………………………... 63 4.3 Women as Peacebuilders …………………………………………………... 71 4.4 Women’s Role in Peacebuilding in the Philippines ……………………..… 74 CHAPTER FIVE – Peacebuilding Processes ……………………………..…… 78 5.1 Faith-Inspired Women Peacebuilders – Discussions ….…………………… 80 Table 5.1: Research Participants Description and Roles in Peacebuilding .......... 83 5.1.1 Faith-Inspired Women and their Current Roles ..…………….… 87 Table 5.2: Summary of the Themes Presented in Chapter 5 …………………… 87 5.1.2 Filipino Women, Religion, and Politics ………………………... 96 Table 5.3: Research Participants’ Perception of the Role of Gender in the Support they Receive………………………………………………… 98 5.1.3 Faith-Inspired Women Peacebuilders and the War on Drugs …... 102 Table 5.4: The Research Participants and the Philippines’ War on Drugs …….. 102 CHAPTER SIX – Conclusions …………………………………………..……... 118 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………. 124 vi Appendix A – Interview Guide (English and Filipino versions) ………………....... 133 Appendix B – Participant Consent Form …………………………………………… 139 Appendix C – Transcript Release Form …………………………………………….. 142 LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1: Research Participants Description and Roles in Peacebuilding .……………… 83 Table 5.2: Summary of the Themes Presented in Chapter 5 ……………………………... 87 Table 5.3: Research Participants’ Perception of the Role of Gender in the Support they Receive ……….…………………………………………………..…….… 98 Table 5.4: The Research Participants and the Philippines’ War on Drugs .……..……. …. 102 vii CHAPTER ONE – Introductory Chapter 1.1 Introduction The War on Drugs in the Philippines has cost over 12,000 lives since July 1, 2016.1 Despite all the controversy over extrajudicial killings and other issues that the administration is facing, President Rodrigo Duterte retained “high approval and trust ratings in an October 2017 Pulse Asia Research survey scoring both at 80 percent.”2 This