Durham E-Theses Mobility and economic transition in the 5th to the 2nd millennium B.C. in the population of the Central Iranian Plateau, Tepe Hissar AFSHAR, ZAHRA How to cite: AFSHAR, ZAHRA (2014) Mobility and economic transition in the 5th to the 2nd millennium B.C. in the population of the Central Iranian Plateau, Tepe Hissar, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11064/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Mobility and Economic Transition in the 5th to the 2nd Millennium B.C. in the Population of the Central Iranian Plateau, Tepe Hissar Zahra Afshar Ustinov College Submitted as Qualification for: Doctorate of Philosophy Archaeology Department Durham University 2014 Abstract Mobility and economic transition in the 5th to the 2nd millennium B.C. in the population of the Central Iranian Plateau, Tepe Hissar Zahra Afshar Iranian archaeology has had a keen interest in exploring unexplained events occurring during the 5th to the 2nd millennium B.C. on the Central Iranian Plateau. This is represented by transformations in material culture, a differentiation in mortuary practices, and site abandonment and reoccupation, and has traditionally been explained by the influx of new populations into Central Plateau sites. The site of Tepe Hissar, the subject of this research, located in the north east region of the Central Plateau and appears to have undergone these changes during its existence (late 5th to the early 2nd millennium B.C.). This research uses a bioarchaeological approach to tests the hypotheses that the socio-cultural-economic changes that occurred at Tepe Hissar over time, accompanied by influxes of new people into the site, particularly in Hissar periods II and III; ultimately impacted on subsistence economy, diet, and general health, and also resulted in a rise in tension and interpersonal violence. The biological affinity data suggest that the changes at Tepe Hissar were not accompanied by large scale population replacement/immigration/or invasion. Rather, there was more small scale population replacement over time, although these changes were accompanied by interpersonal violence. These changes did not greatly impact on the general health of people over time, although people in each period experienced different frequencies of stress and disease, and periods of malnutrition; both females and males were affected equally in each period. The dental disease data showed that changes during Hissar II and III had a significant impact on the oral health of people, and Hissar I experienced better oral-health compared to later periods; this may be due to changes in subsistence economy and diet, food preparation techniques, and how the teeth were used as tools. The data indicate that males possibly suffered poorer dental health compared to females at this site; they may have had a different diet, or possibly used their teeth as a third hand more than females. The isotopic data (C/N) showed that the inhabitants had access to similar food resources across all periods; individuals from each period, both sexes from different age- categories, had a similar diet based on C3 plants and animal protein, as well as a small contribution from fresh water resources. ii Overall, this research suggests that the society who lived at Tepe Hissar overall may have had an appropriate social structure and adequate food resources to withstand socio-cultural-economic changes, enabling the community to be more centralised socially, economically, and politically such that the changes and events they experienced did not markedly affect their health or nutritional status. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………...…………....ii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………….…………..…..iv LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………..…….…...ix LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….….xix STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT……………………………………………..…….xxiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………….........xxv DEDICATION………………………………...…………………………………..…xxvii Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background to the Project ........................................................................................ 1 1.2. Hypotheses and Research Questions ........................................................................ 4 1.3. Significance of Research .......................................................................................... 5 1.4. Structure of the Thesis ............................................................................................. 6 Chapter 2 : THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF THE CENTRAL IRANIAN PLATEAU AND TEPE HISSAR .................................................................. 7 2.1. The Central Iranian Plateau ...................................................................................... 7 2.1.1. Environmental Context ..................................................................................... 7 2.1.2. Prehistoric Chronological Sequence (Table 2.1) .............................................. 8 2.2. The Site of Tepe Hissar ......................................................................................... 11 2.2.1. History of Research and Excavation at Tepe Hissar ....................................... 14 2.2.2. The Prehistoric Chronological Sequence of Tepe Hissar ............................... 15 2.2.3. Tepe Hissar Graves ......................................................................................... 38 Chapter 3 : BACKGROUND 1: NORMAL VARIATION- SKELETAL AND DENTAL EVIDENCE AND QUESTIONS OF BIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS47 3.1. Metrical Analysis of Skeletal and Dental Remains (population affinity) .............. 48 3.1.1. Craniofacial Measurements ............................................................................. 49 3.1.2. Dental Measurements ...................................................................................... 57 3.1.3. Stature ............................................................................................................. 62 3.2. Non-Metric Analysis of Skeletal and Dental Remains .......................................... 64 3.2.1. Cranial Non- Metric Traits .............................................................................. 66 iv 3.2.2. Post-Cranial Non-Metric Traits ...................................................................... 74 3.2.3. Dental Non-Metric Traits ................................................................................ 77 3.3. Summary ................................................................................................................ 82 Chapter 4 : BACKGROUND 2: ABNORMAL VARIATION-THE PALEOPATHOLOGY OF DIETARY INDUCED BIOLOGICAL STRESS AND TRAUMA ......................................................................................................................... 84 4.1. Stress and Disease .................................................................................................. 84 4.1.1. Skeletal Indicators ........................................................................................... 85 4.1.2. Dental Indicators ........................................................................................... 103 4.1.3. Trauma .......................................................................................................... 116 Chapter 5 : BACKGROUND 3: DIET- STABLE ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS ............ 121 5.1. Stable Isotopes: Definition and Terminology ...................................................... 121 5.1.1. Material Analysed in Isotopic Analysis ........................................................ 122 5.2. Foodwebs: Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes Compositions .................................... 124 5.2.1. Carbon Isotope Values in Nature .................................................................. 125 5.2.2. Nitrogen Isotope Values in Nature ................................................................ 133 5.3. Contribution of Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopic Signatures in Paleodietary Reconstruction............................................................................................................. 138 5.4. Limitations ........................................................................................................... 139 Chapter 6 : MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................. 140 6.1. Materials ............................................................................................................... 140 6.2. Methods ................................................................................................................ 142 6.2.1. Skeletal Recording Form .............................................................................. 142 6.2.2. Preservation ..................................................................................................