1 THE ETHNIC FACTOR IN THE NIGERIA- CAMEROON BORDER DISPUTE BY UGWUOWO KENNETH O. PG/M.SC/10/57038 DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA JULY, 2012 2 TITLE PAGE THE ETHNIC FACTOR IN THE NIGERIA-CAMEROON BORDER DISPUTE BY UGWUOWO KENNETH O. PG/M.SC/10/57038 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.SC) DEGREE IN POLITICAL SCIENCE (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS). SUPERVISOR: PROF. OBASI IGWE JULY, 2012 APPROVAL PAGE Ugwuowo Kenneth O, a postgraduate student in the Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with registration Number PG/MS.C/10/57038 has satisfactorily completed his dissertation work requirements for the award of Master of Science in Political Science (International Relations). The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in full for another degree of this or any other university, to the best of our knowledge. ………………………… …………………………… Prof. Obasi Igwe Prof. Obasi Igwe (Supervisor) (Head of Department) 3 …………………….. ……………………….. External Examiner Dean 4 DEDICATION To God Almighty 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Having completed a work of this nature, the truism in the saying that no man is an island unto himself easily come to bear as I remain indebted to so many who contributed to make the dream a reality. First, I must commend the inestimable assistance and guide of my indefatigable supervisor and head of department of political science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Prof. Obasi Igwe. I so remain indebted. I am also grateful to all my lecturers in the department, especially, Prof. Jonah Onuoha, Prof. E. O. Ezeani, Dr. A. M. Okolie, Dr. Ken Ifesinachi, and the Late Prof. Mrs. Ikejiani clerk (may her soul rest in peace) for their good work on me. Finally, mention must also be made here of the great assistance from the staff of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, University of Nigeria and those of the National Library of Nigeria, Enugu Branch as well. So grateful. 6 ABSTRACT Although the dynamics of the Nigeria-Cameroon border conflicts in its entirety has attracted considerable attention in recent times, no serious study has been conducted to find out the impact of the ethnic interests of the people living in the Bakassi and the link between the ICJ ruling and the secessionist bid of the people as well, on the Nigeria-Cameroon border problems. The central aim of this study therefore, is to analyze the implications the ethnic interests of the people residing in the peninsular and the ICJ verdict pose on the entire Nigeria-Cameroon border problems. The study is guided by two main questions; first, “Have the ethnic interest of the people living in the Bakassi, had any impacts on the entire dynamics of Nigeria-Cameroon border problems?” Second, “Has the international court of justice ruling, inspired the secessionist bid of Nigerians residing in the peninsular? To this, it is an analysis of two human factors thrown up by a conflict situation as implicated in the conflict. Therefore, two general points emerge from the study. First, pressure from the real victims of the conflicts - that is those whose livelihood chances are directly threatened by the conflict is often critical in explaining the conflict. In other words, the contradiction brought about by the abstruse, artificial delineation of the two states’ boundary by the colonialists in alter neglect of the Africa traditional style of separation is in the first place, discovered as the root of the conflict. Second it is clear that there is a link between the ethnic considerations of the Bakassians and their continuous bid for secession. Therefore, the ethnicity of the people is often critical in bringing about the resolution of the Nigeria- Cameroon conflicts. The study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one covers the introductory phase of the enquiry. It embraces the general introduction, statement of problem, objective of study, significance of study, literature review, theoretical framework, hypotheses, research design- methods of data collection and analysis and the operationalization of terms. In chapter two, we looked at the ethnic map of the Bakassi and European imperialism. Here, we treated the geography of the Nigeria-Cameroon boundary, the ethnic groups and inter- ethnic relations, ethnic groups and evolution of colonial boundaries, British/German administration and obfuscation of the Nigeria-Cameroon colonial international boundary and Bakassi ethnic groups and rise of other problems. In chapter three, we examined the other complex dimensions of the Bakassi disputes which embraced the political dimension, the cultural dimension, the legal dimension and the strategic dimension as well. The chapter four treats the effects of the Bakassi disputes on ethnic relations. Here, issues like, the rise of the initial trends in the Bakassi disputes, the Nigeria-Biafran war and the Bakassi question, Gowon/Nigeria and the Maroua declaration, Neighbor relations/foreign involvement, the good offices of AU, UN and Kaffi Annan, and the Bakassi dispute, Obasanjo and Abacha, two Nigerian leaders and the Bakassi, Court proceedings and the Green Tree Agreement (GTA), the ICJ ruling and the Nigeria Territorial Integrity and Bakassi ethnic groups and the resettlement programmes. vi Finally, we summarized, conclude and proffered solutions in chapter five. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i Approval Page .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ii 7 Dedication .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iii Acknowledgment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iv Abstract .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. v Table of Contents .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. vi CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 6 1.3 Objectives of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 1.4 Significance of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 1.5 Scope of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17 1.6 Literature Review .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17 1.7 Theoretical Framework .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29 1.8 Hypotheses .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 1.9 Methods of Data Collection .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 1.2.1 Methods of Data Analysis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34 1.2.2 Research Design .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34 1.2.3 Definition of Terms and Acronyms .. .. .. .. .. 35 References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39 CHAPTER TWO: THE ETHNIC MAP OF THE BAKASSI AND EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM 2.1 Geography of the Nigeria Cameroon Boundary .. .. .. .. 43 2.2 Ethnic Groups and Inter-Ethnic Relations .. .. .. .. .. .. 45 2.3 Ethnic Groups and Evolution of Colonial Boundaries .. .. .. .. 54 2.4 British/German Administration And Obfuscation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Colonial International Boundary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 61 2.4 Bakassi Ethnic Groups and Rise of other Problems .. .. .. .. 69 vii References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 80 CHAPTER THREE: OTHER COMPLEX DIMENSIONS OF THE BAKASSI DISPUTES 3.1 The Political Dimension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 82 3.2 The Cultural Dimension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 97 3.3 The Legal Dimension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 100 3.4 The Strategic Dimension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 118 References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 124 8 CHAPTER FOUR: EFFECTS OF THE BAKASSI DISPUTE ON ETHNIC RELATIONS 4.1 Rise of the Initial Trends in the Bakassi Dispute .. .. .. .. 126 4.2 The Nigerian-Biafran War and the Bakassi Question . .. .. .. 131 4.3 Gowon/Nigeria and the Maroua Declaration .. .. .. .. .. 135 4.4 Neighbor Relations/Foreign Involvement .. .. .. .. .. 143 4.5 The Good Offices of AU, UN and Koffi Annan and the Bakassi Dispute .. 148 4.6 Obasanjo & Abacha, two Nigerian Leaders and the Bakassi .. .. .. 159 4.7 Court Proceedings and the Green Tree Agreement .. .. .. .. 161 4.8 The ICJ Ruling and the Nigerian Territorial Integrity .. .. .. 167 4.9 Bakassi Ethnic Groups and the Resettlement Programmes .. .. .. 168 References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 173 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 176 5.2 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 191 5.3 Recommendations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 194 Biography .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 196 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY “Boundaries remain critical sources of discord among many nations in the international system today. The possibility of border disagreement escalating into war also continues to be real. Confronted by this reality in the world, scholars and experts have developed many methods for the resolution of conflicting border claims in the international community. Many of these depend on a host of factors (including, the historical background of the states involved, their general level of economic attainment, the nature of the borders themselves, the specific socio-economic cum political issues along disputed borders, as well as their domestic political and economic structures), for their success in deflecting border crisis. Most of these elements underlie the Nigeria-Cameroon boundary dispute” (Fombo, 2006: 191). 9 Nevertheless, most border conflicts between and among African states, no doubt are products of evolution and change. Nigeria – Cameroon boundary dispute, not an exception, could be traceable to among other crucial factors, the aftermath of the European imperialism on the continent Africa, as the root. In other words, the emergence of many African states from colonial rule in the 1950s and 60s, consequently brought grim prospects of widespread border conflict. These