GENDER COMPLEXITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF XENOPHOBIA- AFROPHOBIA IN THE TRANSNATIONAL SPACE: THE EXPERIENCES OF SOMALI WOMEN IN MAYFAIR, AND PRETORIA WEST IN GAUTENG PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA. _________________________________ By Anthony Gathambĩri Waiganjo (Student Number: 214581192) Submitted in fulfilment for the degree of doctor of philosophy in gender studies programme, faculty of humanities, School of Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa ________________________________________________ ________ SUPERVISOR: Dr. Janet Mũthoni Mũthũki JULY 2017 DECLARATION I, Anthony Gathambĩri Waiganjo declare that: The research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original research. 2. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. 3. This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. 4. This thesis does not contain other persons' writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a. Their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced. b. Where their exact words have been used, then their writing has been placed in italics and inside quotation marks, and referenced. 5. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being detailed in the thesis and in the References sections. Student name: Anthony Gathambĩri Waiganjo Signature: Supervisor: Janet Mũthoni Mũthũki Signature Date: ii DEDICATION Special dedication to my mom, Mary Nyawĩra and Dad, James Waiganjo, who brought me into this world, educated me and sacrificed everything for me. To my ten siblings, Gabriel Mũraguri, Catherine Ngĩma, Elizabeth Mũthoni, Agatha Wangarĩ, Agnes Wanjikũ, Cecilia Wanjirũ, Anne Wangũi, Polly Wambũi, John Karanja, Fr. Patrick Mũrũnga. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to Pretty Ncube, Jennifer Pillinger-Melnick and your entire team of Action Support Center for your undying support in linking me with the Somali Women Network. Your stirring contribution in the interviews cannot be ignored. I cherish your generous support, in preparing a suitable ground for my field work. To the South African Somali Women Network members, thank you for your availability whenever I approached you for the interviews, even in your busy schedules-May God bless you. You opened your beautiful hearts to me and welcomed me into your lives. I lack the words to express my sincere thanks, for your great contribution towards enriching my study with your stories. I would like to acknowledge my research informants and interpreters in Johannesburg, Mayfair. Osman, you were the first Somalian that I came into contact with, both telephonically and in person. You gave your time and energy to me and networked me with women that came to study English at the South Africa Somali Board premises. I cannot repay you for your unstinting support. I will always remember that you are the one who linked me with the Pretoria community which later became the source of substantive data for my research. To JJ.Cheche, the chairperson of the South African Somali women Network, I say thank-you for your support with connecting me to the interview participants. I am greatly indebted to Suleiman and Abrahman for enhancing my entry into the Somali community in Pretoria. You not only supported my entry into the community but, helped in interpretations and finding the interview participants for the study. I have reminiscence of you going the extra mile to buy me meals at the restaurant. I cannot forget Abdi, the owner of the Aljazeera restaurant who accepted me as his son, and offered me some meals during my research. Thank you Abdi. ii To all Somali community members that participated in the interviews, you will forever remain in my heart. You are dear to me my brothers and sisters. Ilaah ha idiin barakeeyo/Mungu awabariki (May God bless you). I wish to express my deepest and profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Janet Mũthoni Mũthũki who relentlessly journeyed with me during the writing of this dissertation. Your selfless infinite mentorship and critical engagement throughout the whole process of writing was immense. I am fortunate to have you in my life as my supervisor who believed in me, and assiduously midwifed my ideas and academic creativity towards the writing of the dissertation. To you Professor Steven Mutula (Deputy Vice chancellor), thank you for your continuous encouragement. You always asked me how far my work was, and motivated me to finish my doctorate in a short space of time. Thank you. A big thank you goes to my family back home and all my acquaintances in Kenya and South Africa for assuring me your prayers. My heart goes out to Marcel, Alethea and your beautiful children, Alaria and Marcus for adopting me into your family. Your unalloyed support was indescribable. Alethea and Marcel, you always asked about my wellbeing warmheartedly. I cannot forget you Aunt Bev and your daughters for your unparalleled support. My heart goes to you Aunt Phyllis and Cyril Moorhead for rejuvenating my hope and sustaining it. You always reminded me to keep my focus on what I started and that; I should remain on the track. God bless you. I want to appreciate Celeste, for your relentless support when I needed some information within and outside the library. You are a friend and a true sister. My brother, Jules and your family- God bless! Finally, I would like to cordially acknowledge all my friends who have supported me in one way or another especially Daniel Taye Medoye, Stella Shulika, Ernest iii Nkurunsiza, Simion, Eyerusalem Amare, Victor Kabata, Gani, Kaya, Renei, Sandra, Fr James Githinji (IMC), Consolata missionaries, Fr. Quinbet (MAFYA), Saint Martin De Pores Catholic Church in Pietermaritzburg, School of Social Sciences, Vincent Mashau, Nancy Mudau, Dr. Desiree Manicom, Dr. Sharmla Rama, Dr Federicco Settler and Dr Mari, Dr Sunday Obuchulam, Edwin, Dr Abigael, Dr Maggy Ssebunya, Dr Rose Kuhn, Dr Kamau Muna, Albert & Justin, James Miriango, Tony Muinde, Daniel Medoye, Pastor Steve, Janine, Patrick, Stela sabi, Emily Ngeno, Beatrice Dr Philip Awezaye, Naomi wangui, Dr Rees Sharon, Prof Ruth Hoskin and Mrs. Hewitt. iv LIST OF ACRONYMS ACS Action Support Center AMISON African Union Mission in Somalia ANCWL African National Congress Women League AU African Union CBD Central Business District CEDAW Convention on Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women CFVR Center for the Study of violence and reconciliation CRSR Convention Relating to the Status of the Refugees CSO Civil Society Organisations DHA Department of Home Affairs ENAR European Network Against Racism GDP Gross Domestic Product GBV Gender Based Violence ID Identification Document IOM International organization for migration ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria JRS Jesuits Refugees Service KDF Kenya Defense Forces NGO Non-Governmental Organisation v OAU Organisation of African Unity SACSIS South African Civil Society Information Service. SCOB Somali Community Board SADAC South African Development Community SAPS South African Police Services SASA South African Somali Association SAQA South African Qualification Authority SASOWNET South African Somali women’s network SAPS South African Police Services SWDO Somali Women Development Organisation UDHR Universal Declaration for Human rights UFH University of Fort Hare UJ University of Johannesburg UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal UN United Nations UNDEP United Nations Development Programme UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund UNISA University of South Africa UP University of Pretoria USA United States of America vi ABSTRACT The migration of Somali women into South Africa is a fast growing phenomenon due to migrants fleeing intersecting factors of socio-political and economic nature. As compared to Somalia and Kenya, where they encounter socio- political and economic destabilization, these women arrive in South Africa with many expectations for a better life. Somali women leave their countries of origin due to civil wars, Al-Shabaab menace, economic crisis, a lack of opportunities and the need for the transit route to Europe and America. Despite this, women encounter several complexities within the transnational space, such as Xenophobia-Afrophobia. This study focuses on the Xenophobia-Afrophobia related complexities of Somali women in the transnational space. While Xenophobia is the fear of foreigners, Afrophobia is the fear of Black foreigners of African origin. The term Xenophobia-Afrophobia is adopted into the study because, in South African context, both Black Africans who are non-South Africans and foreigners from outside Africa are soft targets of the antiforeigner’s bigotry. Bigotry among anti-foreigners poses a current problem facing contemporary South Africa, damaging the image of Africa and other counties who are resisting immigrant’s influx into their countries. Due to Somali businesses being established amongst the poorest communities in South Africa, natives brand them as ‘job stealers’ and competitors of scarce opportunities manufacturing them as the main victims of Xenophobia-Afrophobia. (Niyigena, 2013). The upsurge of violence against foreign nationals in 2008 and 2015, and the isolated