Article Fernández Pinto To Know or Better Not to: Agnotology and the Social Construction of Ignorance in Commercially Driven Research Manuela Fernández Pinto Departamento de Filosofía, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia / [email protected] Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence in the Philosophy of the Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland. Abstract With an innovative perspective on the social character of ignorance production, agnotology has been a fruitful approach for understanding the social and epistemological consequences of the interaction between industry and scientif c research. In this paper, I argue that agnotology, or the study of ignorance, contributes to a better understanding of commercially driven research and its societal impact, showing the ways in which industrial interests have reshaped the epistemic aims of traditional scientif c practices, turning them into mechanisms of ignorance production. To do so, I examine some of the main contributions to agnotology and provide a taxonomy of practices of ignorance construction common in commercially driven research today. In particular, I present the tobacco industry’s campaign against the health hazards of smoking as a paradigmatic case of ignorance production, identifying f ve central strategies. I then argue that the same strategies have been used in three other cases — global warming, pharmaceuticals, and the 2008 f nancial crisis. Keywords: agnotology, commercially driven science, social construction of ignorance. Introduction Through the 20th century, the social organization 1980s, led to major changes in the organization of of scientif c research had radical transformations, research and development (R&D) in the U.S. (Der- from big in-house corporate labs fueled by major touzos, 1989: 306; Tyson, 1992: 291; Hunt, 1999: U.S. corporations, such as DuPont and General 19; Hart, 2001: 930; Coriat and Orsi, 2002: 1493; Electrics, to military funded projects for national Mirowski, 2011: 115). Accordingly, with the end of defense during the Cold War, to new forms of the Cold War came the transition towards a new private research in the global market, where out- regime of science organization that has reshaped sourcing and of -shoring practices have prevailed the role of science in liberal democracy (Slaugh- (Mirowski and Sent, 2008). In particular, a general ter and Rhoades, 2004; Davies et al., 2006; Fischer, concern with a loss of U.S. competitiveness in 2009; Lave et al., 2010). the global market during the late 1970s and early 53 Science & Technology Studies 30(2) The weakened intellectual property legisla- different mechanisms and practices, tradition- tion proper of the Cold War was strengthened ally tied to knowledge production, have been to accommodate the new R&D commercial reshaped and rechanneled to favor industry framework. A series of legislative Acts, trans- friendly outcomes, leading in many occasions to formed the connection between public and increasing ignorance among policy makers and private research, allowing commercial prof ting the public at large. In this paper, I aim to show of publicly funded research (Barben, 2007: 62). that the agnotological perspective contributes The Bayh-Dole Act, for instance, famously granted to a better understanding of commercially driven property rights to universities over federally scientif c research and its societal impact, showing funded research, allowing them to prof t from the ways in which industrial interests have commercially driven research: “The act enabled reshaped the epistemic aims of traditional scien- universities to enter the marketplace and to prof t tif c practices, turning them into mechanisms of directly when universities held equity positions in ignorance production. To do so, I examine some of companies built around the intellectual property the main contributions to agnotology and provide of their faculty as well as to profit indirectly a taxonomy of practices of ignorance construction when universities licensed intellectual property common in commercially driven research today. to private sector f rms” (Slaughter and Rhoades, In particular, I present the tobacco industry’s 1996: 318). campaign against the health hazards of smoking Changes in the corporate and university as a paradigmatic case of agnogenesis, i.e., of models meant changes in the organization of ignorance production, identifying five central scientif c research as well — most signif cantly, strategies. I then argue that the same strategies the in-house research lab was replaced through have been used in three other cases — global outsourcing R&D — leading to the consolida- warming, pharmaceuticals, and the 2008 f nancial tion of a new regime of science organization crisis. To conclude, I summarize some of the with a new liaison between the industrial and advantages of using the agnotological perspec- the academic sectors (Mirowski, 2011: 94). Hans tive to understand commercially driven science as Radder (2010: 4) characterizes this ongoing well as possible limitations of the approach. commercialization of academic research as “the pursuit of prof t by academic institutions through The social construction of ignorance selling the expertise of their researchers and the results of their inquiries.” As one would expect, Agnotology’s main contribution to the social the industrial influence in academic research studies of science is its understanding of igno- has become a growing concern among science rance as a social construction. This dif ers from the scholars, who have warned us against some of the traditional conception of ignorance as a natural possible consequences of commercially driven vacuum: scientific inquiry (Greenberg, 2001, 2007; Bok, 2003; Slaughter and Rhoades, 2004; Wise, 2006; We need to think about the conscious, unconscious, and structural productions of Resnik, 2007; Radder, 2010). ignorance, its diverse causes and conformations, With an innovative perspective on the social whether brought about by neglect, forgetfulness, character of ignorance production, agnotology, myopia, extinction, secrecy, or suppression. The or the study of ignorance, has been a fruitful point is to question the naturalness of ignorance, its approach for understanding the social and epis- causes and its distribution. (Proctor, 2008: 3) temological consequences of the interaction 1 between industry and academic research. Agno- Accordingly, Proctor (2008: 3) distinguishes three tology introduces a new perspective to the studies kinds of ignorance. In the traditional sense, igno- of science, one in which the social construction of rance is understood as native state: A vacuum or ignorance becomes relevant for understanding void that needs to be replaced with knowledge. scientific practice today. In particular, agnoto- In a second sense, ignorance can be a passive con- logical studies have uncovered the ways in which struct or lost realm. This is the type of ignorance 54 Fernández Pinto that grows from the social conditions in which sci- construction and showing how their traditional ence is made, including science’s political geogra- epistemic purposes have been reshaped, this phy (who is a scientist and why, and why science paper contributes to a better understanding of is done in some places rather than others) and the the import of commercial interests on scientif c selection of certain lines of research over others. research today. In this sense, ignorance emerges from the combi- nation of decisions, circumstances and accidents The tobacco strategy that surround practices of knowledge production. th Finally, ignorance can also be an active construct The paradigmatic case of agnogenesis in the 20 or strategic ploy: It can be deliberately made and century is the U.S. tobacco industry’s denial of 2 maintained to fulf ll the interests of certain peo- the health hazards of smoking. The campaign ple. In this sense, ignorance becomes a manu- began in 1953, when Ernest L. Wynder and his factured product, instead of being a natural or colleagues at the Sloan-Kettering Institute dem- accidental result (Proctor, 2008: 6). onstrated that tobacco tars on the skin of mice The study of the social construction of caused fatal cancer (Wynder et al., 1953) and their ignorance has two central characteristics findings were published in major journals and th (Fernández Pinto, 2015: 295). First, it is construc- magazines in the U.S. On December 15 , the presi- tivist — it focuses on the manufactured character dents of four major tobacco companies (American of ignorance as a phenomenon that needs to be Tobacco, Benson and Hedges, Philip Morris and studied, explained, and dealt with, especially, U.S. Tobacco) met with John Hill, founder and CEO but not particularly, in scientif c practice today. of the famous public relations f rm Hill & Knowlton Second, agnotology in this sense is social — it is (H&K). This was the launching point of the tobacco not concerned with the individual knower, but industry’s denial campaign, in which the U.S. with the social circumstances that encourage tobacco industry together with H&K would design the production of ignorance. The agnotological and execute a strategy to counter scientif c f nd- perspective emphasizes that a better under- ings against tobacco smoking. Oreskes and Con- standing of the mechanisms through which way (2010: 6) call it the tobacco strategy: “Its target ignorance is socially created and maintained was science, and so it relied heavily on scientists would lead us to a more