NOTES Introduction * C. G.Jung, Psychological Types, val. 6 of The Collected Works if C. G.]ung, trans. R. F. C. Hull (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 52. 1. The psychoanalytic dimension of this interchange is discussed in Paul Schilder, "The Libidinous Structure of the Body-Image," in his The Image and Appearance if the Human Body (New York: International Universities Press, 1950), pp. 119-212. 2. Louise 0. Fradenburg, City, Marriage, Tournament: Arts if Rule in Late Medieval Scotland (Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1991), p. 249. 3. See Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, "Monster Culture (Seven Theses);' in his Monster Theory: Reading Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), pp. 3-25, and Of Giants: Sex, Monsters, and the Middle Ages (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999). 4. L. 0. Aranye Fradenburg, Sacrifice Your Love: Psychoanalysis, Historicism, Chaucer (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002). 5. Georg Simmel, "The Stranger," The Sociology if Geotg Simmel, trans. and ed. Kurt H. Wolff (New York: Free Press, 1950), p. 405 [402-408]. 6. A. David Napier, Foreign Bodies: Performance, Art, and Symbolic Anthropology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 139-40. 7. Napier, Foreign Bodies, p. 156. 8. On this issue, see Homi K. Bhabha, "The Other Question: Stereotype, Discrimination, and the Discourse of Colonialism;' in his The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), pp. 66-84. Bhabha shows how stereo­ typing is based at once upon "daemonic repetition" and absolute rigidity, such that stereotyping's apparent fixity, as sign of difference, is paradoxical. Stereotyping thus carries within it the force of ambivalence, a force that is, e.g., largely ignored, as Bhabha points out, by critics and readers of oriental­ ism, Said included. What is called for is interrogation of the political effects of discourse, produced by representation, which reflect both history and fantasy (as the scene of desire). For an approach to this last point, see my "Re-Orienting Desire: Writing on Gender Trouble in Fourteenth-Century Egypt," Gender and Difference in the Middle Ages, ed. Sharon Farmer and Carol Braun Pasternack (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), pp. 230-57. 162 NOTES 9. Napier, Foreign Bodies, p. 153. 10. M. Masud R. Khan, Alienation in Perversions (London: Hogarth, 1979), p. 121. Perversions should be placed in more general contexts: "that of man's attempts to escape from his condition," as Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel puts it (p. 299). See her essay "Perversion and the Universal Law," International Review of Psycho-Analysis 10 (1983): 293-301. 11. Edward Glover, "The Relation of Perversion-Formation to the Development of Reality-Sense;' International journal of Psycho-Analysis 14 (1933): 489 (486-504]. 12. See Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (NewYork:Verso, 1989). Chapter 1 Eastern Marvels 1. John Heaton, "The Other and Psychotherapy," The Provocation of Levinas: Rethinking the Other, ed. Robert Bernascon and David Wood (London: Roudedge, 1988), pp. 5-6. The other, as a central critical term in my analy­ sis and one inherited by cultural studies from the hermeneutic philosophy of Hegel, Husserl, and Heidegger, too often loses its historical and cultural specificity in contemporary discussions of difference. For a provocative philosophical account of alterity, see Mark C. Taylor, Altarity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). While I would want to begin with an abstract, unlocalized definition of the other, such as the one I cite here from Tzetvan Todorov, my guiding concern is to show how medieval culture tells its own story through a history of the other: We can discover the other in ourselves, realize we are not a homoge­ neous substance, radically alien to whatever is not us: as Rimbaud said, ]e est un autre. But others are also" I"s: subjects just as I am, whom only my point of view-according to which all of them are out there and I alone am in here--separates and authentically distinguishes from myself. I can conceive of these others as an abstraction, as an instance of any individ­ ual's psychic configuration, as the Other-other in relation to myself, to me; or else as a specific social group to which we do not belong. This group in turn can be interior to society: women for men, the rich for the poor, the mad for the "normal"; or it can be exterior to society, i.e., another society... unknown quantities, outsiders whose language and customs I do not understand, so foreign that in extreme instances I am reluctant to admit they belong to the same species as my own. (The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Harper, 1984], p. 3) 2. Matthew Paris, Chronica majora, ed. Henry Richards Luard, 6 vols. (London, 1876) 3: 488.All translations, unless otherwise cited in text, are my own. 3. In fact Paris's account of the Tartars begins with a potential, unexpected alliance: Saracen emissaries arrive at the court of the king of France seeking Christian aid against" quoddam genus hominum monstruosum et inhumanum ex NOTES 163 montibus borealibus prorupisse" [a certain race of monstrous and savage beings who have rushed down from the northern mountains]. In England, the Muslim ambassadors are turned away in reproach by the bishop of Winchester: "Sinamus canes hos illos devorare ad invicem, ut consumpti pereant" [Let us leave those dogs to devour these, in order that they may perish by consuming one another (Paris, Chronica majora, p. 489) ]. 4. John of Plano Carpini, History of the Mongols, ch. 8 in The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters if the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, ed. and trans. Christopher Dawson (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1955), p. 45. 5. The legend of Prester John as a Western fantasy of power dominated the imagination of crusaders from the Second to the Fifth Crusade (ca. 1150--1240). An interesting, yet as we shall see typical, conflation occurred at the time of the Fifth Crusade, as the crusaders approach Damietta. In a letter, dated April 18, 1221, sent to a number of important personages, including Pope Honorius Ill, Jacques de Vi try expected relief from a certain oriental prince named David, whom he identified with Prester John. David (also taken to be Prester John's son) turned out to be none other than Genghis Khan. The letter is edited by R. B. C. Huygens, Lettres de Jacques de Vitry, 1160170-1240, Mque de S.Jean-d'Acre (Leiden: Brill, 1960),pp. 134-53. On the identification of Prester John with David and its role in the propa­ ganda of the Fifth Crusade, see Friedrich Zarncke, "Der Priester Johannes als Vorfahr des sogenanntes Konig David, des Mongolen Dschingiskhan," Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Classe der kiiniglichen sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschajien 8 (1883): 5-59; Martin Gosman, "La legende du PretreJean et la propagande aupres des Croises devant Damiette (1218-1221)," La croisade: realites et fictions. Actes du Colloque d'Amiens 18-22 Mars 1987 (Gi:ippingen: Kiimmerle, 1989), pp. 133-42; and R. W Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 45-47. 6. See, e.g., The World if Henri Wallon, ed. Gilbert Voyat (New York: Aronson, 1984), p. 46. 7. Paris, Chronica majora, p. 488. 8. See, e.g., "The Tartar Relation" (Historia Tartarorum), a largely ethnographic description of the Mongols written down in 1247 by a certain C. de Bridia upon the occasion of Plano Carpini's return to Europe, in R. A. Skelton, Thomas E. Marston, and George D. Painter, The Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 97. Or this concerning the taste of Mongols for pickled human flesh in the Egerton MS version of Mandeville: "When thai ensege a castell or a walled toune, thai behete thaim that er enseged so faire proffers that it is wonder; for thai will graunt tham what-sum-ever thai asch. Bot, als sone as thai hafe yolden tham, thai slae tham and cuttez off thaire eres and !ayes tham in vynegre for to sowce and makez of thaim a dayntee meet for grete lordes" (The Buke ifJohn Maundeuill. being the Travels ifJohn Mandeville, Knight 1322-5 6. A Hitherto Unpublished English 164 NOTES Version from the Unique Copy (Egerton Ms. 1982) in the British Museum . .. together with the French Text, Notes, and an Introduction, ed. George F. Warner [London: Roxburghe Club, 1889], p. 123). For a recent overview of Western myths of Mongol cannibalism, see Gregory G. Guzman, "Reports of Mongol Cannibalism in the Thirteenth-Century Latin Sources: Oriental Fact or Western Fiction?" Discovering New IM>rlds: Essays on Medieval Exploration and Imagination ed. Scott D. Westrem, (New York: Garland, 1991), pp. 31-68. The figure of the cannibal, as I suggest later, is an important image in the construction of specific kinds of fantasies. The widespread figure was central to the formation of national consciousness and identity. 9. Paris describes the Mongols erupting "ex Caspiis montibus vel ex vicinis" [out of the Caspian mountains or from that region] and "ex montibus bore­ alibus prorupisse" [rushed down from the northern mountains] (Chronica majora, p. 488). 10. The existence of Gog and Magog was established on the basis of Gen. 10:1-5, Ezek. 38:1-23 and 39:1-6, and Rev. 20:7-10. On his map of Palestine, Matthew Paris depicts in the north Alexander's walls and the inclusi, and states in a rubric that from this same direction came the Tartars. See Konrad Miller, Mappae Mundi: Die iiltesten Weltkarten, 6 vols. (Stuttgart, 1895-98) 3: 93.