SIXTEEN Prophetess of the Spirits Mother Leaf Anderson and the Black Spiritual Churches of New Orleans Yvonne Chireau Mother Leaf Anderson, a thirty-two-year-old missionary, preacher, and proph­ etess, went to New Orleans, Louisiana, in 19 ig to establish a church that would reflect her distinctive vision of sacred reality. In 1927, when she died, she left a legacy of women’s leadership and spiritual innovation that had transformed the religious landscape of the city for both blacks and whites. Anderson, a woman of African and Native American ancestry, founded a religion that would carry her signature into the present day. Leaf Anderson’s role in the formation of the New Orleans black Spiritual churches reveals the unusual and complex cultural configurations that she embodied in both her life and her ministry. The ways that she redefined gender and religious empower­ ment for women in the Spiritual tradition influenced all who came after her. This essay considers gender and race as intersecting categories in its analy­ sis of the churches established by Anderson, a network of congregations that synthesized elements of Protestantism, Catholicism, nineteenth-century American spiritualism, and neo-African religions. My focus on African Amer­ ican women serves as a counterbalance to interpretations of religious his­ tory that fail to account for race, class, and gender as determinants of female subjectivity. The contrasting social and cultural realities for black and white women underscore the differences in the religious options that both groups have historically sought and chosen. The black Spiritual movement is one product of those differences. The New Orleans Spiritual churches were paradigms of female religious empowerment. The churches expanded public roles for women, who were able to benefit from the economic advantages that attended their ministries. Furthermore, the emergence of the Spiritual churches as a loosely organized movement precluded many of the structural constraints to female leader­ ship that have existed historically within denominational systems. Through 303 304 YVONNE CHIREAU the creation of informally associated networks and autonomous local con­ gregations, and the maintenance of female-centered traditions, the unique pattern of women’s leadership in the black Spiritual churches has endured. Unlike their mainstream ecclesiastical counterparts. Spiritual churches were organized around women’s leadership from the start. Although black denominations in the United States were initially established as sites of resis­ tance against racial oppression, within many of these churches women have experienced discrimination on account of their sex. While not excluded from leadership roles, women in black Christian denominations have for the most part been denied the status and prestige of the pastorate and clerical ordi­ nation. Even in the present day, African American women’s visibility as pub­ lic leaders in black denominations remains, by and large, extremely limited, their activities varying from ceremonial functions to the exercise of “influ­ ence” and “surrogate leadership” in congregations.' By contrast, female authority in both official and ceremonial capacities is conspicuous within the Spiritual churches, a movement whose evolution occurred apart from that of the mainstream black denominational bodies.^ At their inception, the Spiritual churches created standards of leadership that were legitimated by women. The founders of many of the early Spiritual churches in New Orleans were female, their honorary status indicated by such tides as Mother, Reverend Mother, Prophetess, and Queen. Women were rep­ resented in Spiritual church hierarchies as pastors, bishops, and archbish­ ops, and in lay capacities many became religious advisers. As with white Amer­ ican and British nineteenth-century spiritualist women who asserted latent feminist claims to social equality, black women in the early-twentieth-century Spiritual churches linked their religious empowerment to alternative visions of divinity, to the establishment of authoritative roles, and to strategies by which they challenged conventional perspectives of race and gender. Mem­ bers of the Spiritual churches drew from collective cultural resources that incorporated diverse strands from African and American traditions. Woven together, the.se sources gave New Orleans Spiritualism its eclectic flavor.^ Throughout history, women whose aspirations for leadership have been thwarted by mainstream religions have found appealing alternatives in sects, intentional communities, and so-called marginal traditions. Women-led religious movements have epitomized female dissatisfaction with aspects of male-dominated religion, such as patriarchal language and conceptions of God, and conservative expectations of women’s social roles.^ In many sec­ tarian traditions, female congregants have accounted for a sizable propor­ tion of church membership, and where the sect’s founder was a woman such groups generally accept women as leaders and persons of authority.® While numerically dominating membership in nearly all African American religious groups, black women have also been instrumental within sectarian traditions in the United States. Sometimes described derogatorily as “cults,” black sects PROPHETESS OE THE SPIRITS: MOTHER LEAF ANDERSON 305 tend to be offshoot movements, typically smaller than mainstream African American denominations, usually centered on a charismatic figure and often distinguished hy uncommon ritual styles. The female-centered character of the black sects has been noted by numerous scholars of religion.® Like their sectarian counterparts in the early twentieth century, the Spiritual churches in New Orleans were noteworthy for the emphasis they placed on female clergy and church leadership. The beginnings of the Spiritual movement coincide with the rise of African American religions in northern cities shortly after the turn of the nineteenth century. One of the earliest Spiritual churches, the Eternal Life Spiritualist Church, was established in Chicago by Mother Leaf Anderson in 1913. Chicago, the archetypal “black metropolis,” was a veritable mecca for thou­ sands of blacks who departed the South between 1914 and 1918 and between 1939 and 1945, during what was known as the Great Migration. Fleeing poverty, labor exploitation, a devastated agricultural economy, and political and social repression, masses of black southerners poured into the cities to fill a demand for cheap labor by northern industries, seeking promising futures and economic opportunity. Concurrent with the rising tide of migra­ tion, an increasingly pluralistic religious situation developed in Chicago’s African American neighborhoods.’ In Chicago, blacks founded and joined Baptist and Methodist denomina­ tions, storefront holiness congregations, Muslim temples, Afro-Judaic sects, and numerous missionary organizations. Within this religiously diverse and rapidly growing population, the first black Spiritual churches appeared.® In the same decade as the founding of Leaf Anderson’s church, several Spiri­ tual congregations emerged in other parts of the country. Scholars have noted the presence of Spiritual storefronts in several metropolitan areas in the United States early in the 1900s, but it is not clear whether these churches were related to one another.® In New Orleans, however, the Spiritual churches developed an independent and culturally distinct character, spreading via a chain of con­ gregations through that city’s black and poor ethnic communities. Leaf Anderson moved to New Orleans before the third decade of the twen­ tieth century, possibly in 1919.^® Before her arrival, it is believed that she had organized churches in St. Louis, Newjersey, and Indiana. The establishment of those mission churches was essential to the early growth of the movement. Eleven congregations grew out of Anderson’s original Eternal Life Spiritu­ alist Church, including churches in Chicago, Memphis, Little Rock, and Pen­ sacola. Yet of all the cities where black Spiritualism flourished. New Orleans became the integral center for the movement, with at least 175 churches estab­ lished there over the fifty years following Anderson’s initial appearance.^^ It is possible to create only a sketchy portrait of Leaf Anderson’s life before 1918. According to some reports, Anderson was born in Balboa, Wisconsin, in 1887.^2 Other sources say that she had been married once and divorced. 306 YVONNE CHIREAU and that she had traveled to numerous locations before settling on New Orleans as the site of her Spiritual headquarters. She is listed in Chicago’s city directories for 1914, 1916, and 1917 as residing in the southside ward, where she operated a lunch counter. Only a few other historical facts have been uncovered regarding Anderson’s background before arriving in New Orleans, when she began to attract a following among black and white res­ idents of the city.'® Shordy after establishing her first church in New Orleans, Anderson started a class to instruct others in the doctrines and practices of spiritualism. Ander­ son taught students how to prophesy, heal, pray, see spirits, and interpret selections from the Bible. Alumnae of these classes were considered quali­ fied to start their own Spiritual ministries. According to one of her students, Anderson influenced a great number of those who would follow her as min­ isters: “there was eighty-five to a hundred of us in her first class and she charged a dollar