land Article The Influence of Geology on Landscape Typology in Jordan: Theoretical Understanding and Planning Implications Taleb Odeh 1,*, Natalia Boulad 2, Omar Abed 2, Anas Abu Yahya 2, Nour Khries 2 and Nizar Abu-Jaber 3 1 Arid Lands Academy, The Hashemite University, P.O. Box 330127, Zarqa 13133, Jordan 2 The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN), P.O. Box 1215, Jubeiha 11941, Jordan; [email protected] (N.B.); [email protected] (O.A.); [email protected] (A.A.Y.); [email protected] (N.K.) 3 Center for the Study of Natural and Cultural Heritage, German Jordanian University, P.O. Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected] Received: 20 April 2017; Accepted: 26 July 2017; Published: 31 July 2017 Abstract: Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) has been introduced into Jordan through the MEDSCAPES project. The purpose of this project was to streamline landscape studies and integrate them into the land use planning practices in Jordan. Two areas within the Mediterranean and arid climatic zones of the country were chosen as test areas for the methodology. These were the Yarmouk River drainage basin in the northwest of the country and the Mujib River area in the west of Jordan within the Dead Sea basin. Landscape Character Mapping resulted in 22 and 64 Land Description Units (LDUs) for the Yarmouk and Mujib areas, respectively, which were then classified into 14 landscape types. The factors which control the spatial distributions of these units are geology, land cover, landform, and settlements. However, the study suggests that the underlying geology, which influences topography, impacts indirectly on soil types, climate zones, and human activities, and hence has a predominant influence on the character of these units. Specifically, the transition between the Dead Sea Rift Valley and the adjacent highlands create variations in the topographical relief, climate, water availability, and human settlements. Implementation of LCA in Jordan has done much to highlight geological hazards, such as sinkholes, as constraints to development in certain areas. Here, we described how the LCA process could be implemented in Jordan and how this can help in improving land use management practices in the country. Keywords: comparative study; landforms; Landscape Character Assessment (LCA); Land Description Unit (LDU); spatial distributions; topography 1. Introduction Over the last 100 years, population growth and urbanization in Jordan has tremendously changed the land cover of central and north-west Jordan, where there are water resources. The rest of Jordan is mostly desert areas with limited population and Human activity [1]. Population growth and similar, albeit more modest, spatial growth has occurred in the other major cities of the country as well [2]. Poor planning practices during rapid growth periods, which were often triggered by migrations from wars in surrounding countries, have led to a myriad of social and environmental problems [1,2]. These include the common problems of urban sprawl and the loss of agricultural land [3]. More recent legislation and practices rely on long-term master plans for the major cities, which has placed more discipline into the growth patterns [4]. On the other hand, problems of poorly regulated growth Land 2017, 6, 51; doi:10.3390/land6030051 www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2017, 6, 51 2 of 14 Land 2017, 6, 51 2 of 13 are also seen in smaller towns and in rural areas as well, and are perhaps even more pronounced theregrowth [1,3]. are also seen in smaller towns and in rural areas as well, and are perhaps even more pronouncedThere are there a number [1,3]. of other reasons for the poor land use planning practices in Jordan. These includeThere are political a number pressure of other imposed reasons by for local the people poor land and ause desire planning to maintain practices social in Jordan. cohesion These at any costinclude [4,5]. Thepolitical cost ispressure high, however, imposed inby extendinglocal people services and a desire to far flungto maintain scattered social houses cohesion and at building any thecost infrastructure [4,5]. The cost to serveis high, them. however, Partially in extendin for thisg reason, services municipalities to far flung scattered in Jordan houses are generally and building poorly fundedthe infrastructure and ill equipped to serve to provide them. Partially basic services for this to theirreason, residents municipalities [3–5]. in Jordan are generally poorlyOf course, funded there and ill are equipped environmental to provide costs basic as wellservices [1]. to These their includeresidents groundwater [3–5]. depletion and contaminationOf course, due there to the are lack environmental of sewage networks,costs as we thell [1]. changing These include of surface groundwater water drainage depletion patterns, and thecontamination fragmentation due of to often the lack sensitive of sewage ecosystems, networks, andthe changing increased of soilsurface loss water and drainage the deterioration patterns, of agriculturalthe fragmentation lands [1, 6of]. often sensitive ecosystems, and increased soil loss and the deterioration of agriculturalAs part of lands the effort [1,6]. to remedy this situation, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MoMRA) As part of the effort to remedy this situation, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs in Jordan has begun to develop local master plans for many of the 99 municipalities of Jordan [5]. (MoMRA) in Jordan has begun to develop local master plans for many of the 99 municipalities of This has coincided with the funding of the MEDSCAPES (Mediterranean Landscapes) project Jordan [5]. This has coincided with the funding of the MEDSCAPES (Mediterranean Landscapes) ENPI-CBCMED (European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument Cross Border Component project ENPI-CBCMED (European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument Cross Border Mediterranean) program of the European Union. The purpose of this project was to introduce Component Mediterranean) program of the European Union. The purpose of this project was to anintroduce integrative an landscapeintegrative character landscape assessment character assessment (LCA) framework (LCA) framework for enhanced for enhanced and sustainable and territorialsustainable planning territorial and planning decision-making and decision-making in the Eastern in Mediterraneanthe Eastern Mediterranean area [7,8]. The area MEDSCAPES [7,8]. The projectMEDSCAPES had a number project of had components a number of that components are relevant that to are this relevant introduction. to this introduction. Within it, LCA Within has it, been adaptedLCA has for localbeen conditionsadapted for and local implemented conditions and in twoimplemented test areas (Figurein two test1). Finally,areas (Figure major stakeholders,1). Finally, particularlymajor stakeholders, MoMRA, particul have beenarly MoMRA, involved have in the been entire involved project in the and entire have project signed and a Memorandumhave signed ofa Understanding Memorandum of to Understanding use LCA as partto use of LCA the as base part map of the set base that map is set used that for is used land for use land planning use throughoutplanning Jordan.throughout Jordan. TheThe first first objective objective of of the the research research isis toto demonstratedemonstrate the the first first application application of of landscape landscape character character assessmentassessment in Jordanin Jordan that that was was carried carried out out as as part part of theof the MEDSCAPES MEDSCAPES project. project. The The second second objective objective is to evaluateis to evaluate how the underlinehow the underline geological geological structures controlstructures the control spatial distributionthe spatial ofdistribution the landscape of the units. landscape units. FigureFigure 1. 1.Location Location of of the the studied studiedareas. areas. The Wadi Yarmouk Yarmouk study study area area in in the the north-west north-west of ofJordan Jordan whichwhich has has historical historical sites, sites, a large a large area area of agriculturalof agricultural activities, activities, and and an urbanizedan urbanized area. area. The The Wadi Wadi Mujib studyMujib area study in the area Middle in the West Middle of JordanWest of which Jordan has which tourism has tourism investments investments and a beach and a at beach the Dead at the Sea. Dead Sea. The names of Yarmouk and Mujib are written with letters (Al) in some references. The names of Yarmouk and Mujib are written with letters (Al) in some references. Land 2017, 6, 51 3 of 14 2. Background information The two case studies selected have a mix of natural and cultural landscape characteristics. They are as follows: 2.1. The Yarmouk River Basin This basin is situated in the northwestern corner of the country and covers an area of about 1160 km2. It has the forth and tenth largest cities of Jordan; Irbid (population 307,480) and Ramtha (population 74,901). The headwaters of the basin fall in the Ajloun highlands south of Irbid, but the Yarmouk River itself begins permanent flow at Wadi Shallaleh near the Syrian border. The topographic relief in the area is high, ranging from 1200 m above sea level (masl) in the Ajloun Highlands to about −16 (mbsl) at the confluence between the Yarmouk and Jordan Rivers. The geology is dominated by Upper Cretaceous limestone with sinkholes mixed with marl in the lower formations (the Naur and Wadi Shuib formations) and chert in the upper formations (The Amman and Um Rijam Formations). The limestone forms a dome structure with the apex in the area of Ajloun, with the various formations dipping away from this apex in all directions. Towards the east, the Dead Sea Rift Valley is the dominant structural feature, with down rifting leading to rapidly lower elevations in that direction. Towards the north, a peneplain is found at the Yarmouk River showing distinct entrenched meanders along much of the river course. Finally, early in the rifting and uplift process, volcanism led to basalt flows along much of the northern part of this study area [9].