ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA: A CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK ASSESSMENT by Iheriohanma Valerian Ibeawuchi Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2016 © Copyright by Iheriohanma Valerian Ibeawuchi, 2016 DEDICATION TO: My Parents: Jacinta Iheriohanma and in memoriam of my Dad My Family: Chima Iheriohanma, Chigozie Iheriohanma, Mimi Kaima Iheriohanma, Assumpta Ezetulu, Kelechi Onyegbule and Chioma Ekem ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT……… ........................................................................................................ x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED .................................................. xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 3. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 5 3.1. History of Oil Production ................................................................... 5 3.1.1. World Oil Production .............................................................. 5 3.1.2. Oil Production in Nigeria ........................................................ 9 3.2. Environmental and Health Impacts of Petroleum Hydrocarbons ....... 13 3.2.1. Impacts of Drilling................................................................. 17 3.2.2. Impacts of Transportation ...................................................... 21 3.2.3. Impact of Oil Refining............................................................ 25 3.2.4. Impacts of Gas Flaring and Venting ...................................... 34 3.3. Processes of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) .................... 38 3.3.1. Screening ............................................................................... 40 3.3.2. Scoping .................................................................................. 42 3.3.3. Baseline Study ....................................................................... 42 3.3.4. Public Participation .............................................................. 43 3.3.5. Impact Prediction .................................................................. 45 3.3.6. Evaluation ............................................................................. 46 3.3.7. Mitigation .............................................................................. 46 3.3.8. Post Decision Monitoring and Audit ...................................... 47 3.4. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Regulations ....... 49 3.4.1. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Regulations in Canada ....................................................... 49 iii 3.4.1.1. Timeline ................................................................... 52 3.4.1.2. Public Participation ................................................... 52 3.4.1.3. Cooperation and Communication with Aboriginal Peoples..................................................................... 52 3.4.1.4. Follow-up Programs and Enforcement ...................... 53 3.4.2. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Regulations in USA ............................................................ 54 3.4.3. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Regulations in Brazil .......................................................... 56 3.4.4. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Regulations in Nigeria .............................................................................. 58 3.5. Valued Ecosystem Components for Oil and Gas Development......... 62 3.5.1. VECs for Biophysical Environment ........................................ 63 3.5.1.1. Water ........................................................................ 63 3.5.1.2. Soil ........................................................................... 65 3.5.1.3. Air ............................................................................ 66 3.5.2. VECs for Social Environment ................................................ 67 3.5.2.1. Poverty and Loss of Livelihood ................................ 68 3.5.2.2. Conflicts and Social Tensions ................................... 69 3.5.2.3. Public Health Concerns............................................. 70 3.6. Environmental Management ............................................................ 71 3.6.1. Environmental Management Plan .......................................... 71 3.6.2. Environmental Mitigation Plan .............................................. 72 3.6.3. Environmental Monitoring Plan ............................................ 74 3.6.4. Post Decision Follow-up........................................................ 77 3.6.4.1. Environmental Effects Monitoring and Evaluation .... 79 3.6.4.2. Environmental Auditing and Performance ................ 79 CHAPTER 4. ASSESSMENT OF EIA LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA. ............................................................ 81 4.1. Resource Control and Regulation ..................................................... 83 4.2. The Petroleum Act ........................................................................... 84 iv 4.3. Environmental Guidelines and Standards (EGAS) ........................... 88 4.4. The Associated Gas Re-injection Act ............................................... 91 4.5. Problems with Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Regulations. .............. 94 4.5.1. Inadequate Regulations and Guidelines ................................. 94 4.5.2. Weak Enforcement Mechanism .............................................. 95 4.5.3. Multiplicity of Roles ............................................................... 96 4.5.4. Lack of Expertise on the part of Regulatory Agencies ............ 97 4.5.5. Corruption ............................................................................. 98 CHAPTER 5. ASSESSMENT OF VALUED ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS AFFECTED BY OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA. ............... 101 5.1. Assessment of Affected Biophysical VECs. ................................... 101 5.1.1. Contamination of Nigerian Waters....................................... 101 5.1.1.1. Contamination of Marine Environment: .................. 102 5.1.1.2. Contamination of Freshwaters ................................ 106 5.1.2. Soil Contamination .............................................................. 116 5.1.2.1. Destruction of Farmlands ........................................ 116 5.1.2.2. Deforestation and Loss of Biodiversity ................... 119 5.1.3. Air Pollution ........................................................................ 124 5.1.3.1. Air Contaminants .................................................... 124 5.1.3.1.1. Gas flaring.............................................. 126 5.1.3.1.2. Acid rain ................................................. 132 5.1.3.1.3. Thermal pollution ................................... 132 5.1.3.2. Noise Pollution ....................................................... 133 5.2. Assessment of VECs for Social Environment ................................. 134 5.2.1. Social-economic and Human Health Risks ........................... 135 5.2.1.1. Poverty and Destruction of Means of Livelihood .... 136 5.2.1.2. Communal Conflicts and Destruction of Cultural Value: .................................................................... 141 5.2.1.3. Health and Safety of the Community: ..................... 142 5.2.1.4. Youth Militancy and Hostage Taking:..................... 146 5.2.1.5. State Violence and Suppression .............................. 148 v 5.2.1.6. Employment and Social Equity ............................... 149 5.2.1.7. Basic Social Amenities ........................................... 150 5.2.1.8. Political Ecology .................................................... 151 CHAPTER 6. ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA .................................. 154 6.1. Environmental Management Plan .................................................. 154 6.2. Environmental Mitigation Plan ...................................................... 155 6.3. Environmental Monitoring Plan ..................................................... 156 6.4. Post Decision Follow-up ................................................................ 158 6.4.1. Post Decision Audit ............................................................. 158 6.4.2. Post Decision Compliance. .................................................. 159 6.5. Scoping Process ............................................................................. 160 6.7. Cumulative Effects Assessment ..................................................... 164 6.8. Holistic Environmental Assessment ............................................... 165 CHAPTER 7. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF OIL POLLUTION IN EGBEMATORO 1 COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY ....................................................... 166 7.1. Assessment of Soil Contamination