Demystifying the Huntress: Exploring the Experiences of Women Hunters in Eastern North Carolina by Dominique P. Bragg-Holtfreter June 2017 Director of Thesis: Christine Avenarius Major Department: Anthropology The hunter occupies a special place in the system of human-animal interactions. When entering the natural world of wildlife each hunter learns to navigate this world in his or her own way. Hunters aid wildlife management agencies tangibly by maintaining a balance in wildlife populations and economically through hunting license fees, tags, stamps, and taxes from the sales of hunting weapons and equipment. Hunting participation in the United States has been declining over the past twenty years. However, the number of female hunters increased 25% between 2006 and 2011. The increasing concern for animal (wild and domesticate) welfare and the decreasing connectedness to nature makes the exploration of women hunters a critical component to creating a comprehensive understanding of human-animal relationships. This study explores how women hunters in Eastern North Carolina are engaging in and experiencing hunting and uncovering their thoughts and beliefs about hunting, wildlife, and the changing place of women in hunting. The sample includes 25 women hunters, living in Eastern North Carolina. The data are collected using a four part interview instrument; a semi-structured interview, an instrument to gather demographic information, and two structured components. Using the grounded theory approach to text analysis and the software application RStudio to conduct statistical analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, three main findings emerge; the culture of hunting that enables women’s participation, women hunters’ relationships with wildlife, and the changing perspectives about women who hunt. These findings can assist wildlife management agencies to improve their understanding of women hunters in hopes of further increasing female hunting participation, educating the general public about hunters and hunting in the US, and informing policy and planning for environmental and wildlife conservation. Demystifying the Huntress: Exploring the Experiences of Women Hunters in Eastern North Carolina A Thesis Presented To the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology by Dominique P. Bragg-Holtfreter June 2017 © Dominique P. Bragg-Holtfreter, 2017 Demystifying the Huntress: Exploring the Experiences of Women Hunters in Eastern North Carolina by Dominique P. Bragg-Holtfreter APPROVED BY: DIRECTOR OF THESIS: ______________________________________________________________________ Christine Avenarius, PhD COMMITTEE MEMBER: _______________________________________________________ James Loudon, PhD COMMITTEE MEMBER: _______________________________________________________ Holly Mathews, PhD CHAIR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: _________________________________________________________ I. Randolph Daniel, Jr., PhD DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL: _________________________________________________________ Paul J. Gemperline, PhD Dedication For Blanche and George Noville and all my ancestors who came before me…I stand on the shoulders of giants. Acknowledgements I want to thank: Kurt, for understanding my ambition and sharing this journey with me My Mom and Dad, for teaching me to be fiercely independent, trust my instincts, and question everything. There are not enough words to express all you both have done for me. You inspire greatness. My mentors; Christine Avenarius, James Loudon, Holly Mathews, and Christopher Serenari for challenging and encouraging me to be a better critical thinker and social scientist. Table of Contents TITLE PAGE .……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... i COPYRIGHT PAGE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….... ii SIGNATURE PAGE ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii DEDICATION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. viii INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 1 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................................................. 10 HUNTING AND GENDER .................................................................................................................................................... 10 ETHICS OF HUNTING ......................................................................................................................................................... 14 ATTITUDES TOWARD WILDLIFE ........................................................................................................................................ 17 SHIFTING ATTITUDES ....................................................................................................................................................... 22 IDENTITY.......................................................................................................................................................................... 24 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................................. 27 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES ........................................................................................................................ 27 SAMPLING STRATEGY ....................................................................................................................................................... 28 DATA COLLECTION METHODS .......................................................................................................................................... 30 DATA ANALYSIS METHODS .............................................................................................................................................. 32 DATA MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................................................................... 33 EXPLORING THE EXPERIENCES OF WOMEN HUNTERS ..................................................................................... 34 THE CULTURE OF HUNTING .............................................................................................................................................. 34 Socialization into the Culture of Hunting ..................................................................................................................... 35 Identifying as a Hunter ................................................................................................................................................ 35 Hunting as a Cultural Practice .................................................................................................................................... 36 Hunting as a Sport ...................................................................................................................................................... 37 Motivations for Hunting .............................................................................................................................................. 38 WOMEN HUNTERS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH WILDLIFE ......................................................................................................... 39 A Hunter’s Role in the Wildlife Management System ................................................................................................... 40 Wildlife Value Orientations ......................................................................................................................................... 41 Greater than the Harvest ............................................................................................................................................. 42 Highly Debated Hunting Practices ............................................................................................................................... 44 Caring for Wildlife is Important to Hunting ................................................................................................................. 45 Great Appreciation for Wildlife ................................................................................................................................... 46 Conflicts with Wildlife and their Sources ..................................................................................................................... 47 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ABOUT WOMEN WHO HUNT ..................................................................................................... 49 Male Domination of Hunting ....................................................................................................................................... 49 Linking Hunting to Masculinity, Aggression, and Sex .................................................................................................. 50 Overcoming the Kill .................................................................................................................................................... 51 Women’s Contributions to the Hunting Lifestyle 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