Ranasinghe, Kethakie Piyumi (2015) Migrant identities and culture: the second-generation Sri Lankan experience in the Sultanate of Oman. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/6001/ Copyright and moral rights for this thesis are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Glasgow Theses Service http://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe, 2013 1 Migrant Identities and Culture: The Second-Generation Sri Lankan Experience in the Sultanate of Oman Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe B.A., M.Sc. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for Cultural Policy Research School of Culture and Creative Arts University of Glasgow Glasgow G12 8QQ October 2013 © Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe, 2013 Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe, 2013 2 Abstract The thesis sets out to examine key aspects of the identity formation of the second- generation of the Sri Lankan professional expatriate community in Oman. Brought up in a multicultural environment, the respondents of the current study live in a contradiction in terms of their identity. Sri Lankan youths found themselves excluded from both cultures. They found themselves challenging the stereotypes produced by the mainstream society within which they lived, while also demanding freedom from the taboos and customs followed by their parents. Therefore, the thesis sets out to discover the sense of in between- ness felt by the second-generation respondents that was generated through their encounters with family and multicultural society they inhabited. Although a myriad of variables are known to influence an individual’s identity, the current study focuses on the following factors, identified here as having an impact on second- generation migrant identity formation: the complex nature of migration, the resulting cultural encounters and intergenerational tensions that play a role in shaping and framing of migrant youth identities. The study discusses media exposure, in the form of international satellite TV programming in the Middle East, and its possible impacts on migrant identity formation. The study moves from a media-centric view of social development to a more society-centred view in which media are one part of a matrix of migrant youth identity formation. The findings on identity formation of this research are further explored by examining the two main types of identity: hybrid and cosmopolitan, identified within the research as pertinent in understanding the second generation of Sri Lankan youths’ identity formation. By exploring the intergenerational tensions and the occurrence of in between-ness in identities among second-generation of the Sri Lankan professional expatriates in Oman, it is the aim of this research to add to the general understanding of the dynamics integral to the process of identity construction of migrant youths. Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe, 2013 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... 7 Author’s Declaration ........................................................................................................................ 9 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 10 South Asian migrants in the Arab world ....................................................................................... 14 Satellite TV and the migrant experience....................................................................................... 15 Structure of the thesis .................................................................................................................. 17 Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 22 The Context of Research .............................................................................................................. 22 1.1 - Migration, ethnicity and intergenerational tensions ............................................................ 24 1.1.1 - Migrants in the Arab world and formation of their identity ......................................... 25 1.1.2 - Influence of ethnic identity on migrants ....................................................................... 27 1.1.3 - Intergenerational tensions on migrant identities .......................................................... 29 1.2 - Influence of globalisation and media on migrant identity formation .................................. 32 1.2.1 - Influence of transnational satellite TV on migrant identities ........................................ 35 1.2.2 - History of audience studies: theories of media effects ................................................. 37 1.2.3 - Audience studies and globalisation: what is an active audience ................................... 42 1.3 - Identity of the second-generation: hybrid or cosmopolitan? .............................................. 45 1.3.1 - Hybrid identity ............................................................................................................... 45 1.3.2 - Cosmopolitan identity .................................................................................................... 49 1.4 - Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 52 Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 56 Historical Background .................................................................................................................... 56 2.1 - A brief history of South Asian migration to the Gulf countries ............................................ 56 2.1.1 - Immigration and labour policies in Oman ..................................................................... 58 2.1.2 - Migration of Sri Lankans to the Gulf countries .............................................................. 61 2.1.3 - Migration of Sri Lankan professional expatriates to Oman ........................................... 62 2.2 - Establishing the Sri Lankan School Muscat in Oman ............................................................ 63 2.2.1 – Multicultural experience in Sri Lankan School Muscat ................................................. 64 2.2.2 - International education system in the school ............................................................... 65 2.3 - The identity formation of migrants in the Gulf countries .................................................... 67 2.4 - International satellite television in Oman ............................................................................ 69 2.5 - Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 73 Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 75 Reflections on Methodology and the Research Experience .................................................... 75 3.1 - Shift in theoretical focus in the research process ................................................................. 76 Kethakie Piyumi Ranasinghe, 2013 4 3.2 - Ethnographic methodology .................................................................................................. 78 3.2.1 Ethnographic experience in the field ................................................................................... 79 3.3 - Desk Research ....................................................................................................................... 83 3.3.1 - Strengths and weaknesses of desk research ................................................................. 83 3.4 - Focus groups interviews ....................................................................................................... 84 3.4.1 - Focus group sampling .................................................................................................... 85 3.4.2 - Sampling carried out during field work ......................................................................... 86 3.4.3 - Strengths and weaknesses of focus groups interviews ................................................. 87 3.4.4 - Fieldwork experience, Part 1 ......................................................................................... 90 3.4.5 - Fieldwork experience, Part 2 ......................................................................................... 92 3.5 - Major findings that emerged through the second field work .............................................. 94 3.6 - Open ended individual interviews ........................................................................................ 96 3.6.1 - Interview Selection ........................................................................................................ 97