19 Introduction Margu^rite Corporaal and Lottejensen Figure19. 1 EugeneDelacroix, "Liberty Leading the People" 1830,oil oncanvas, 260 x 325cm. Musee du Louvre, Paris Source:Centre Art HistoricalDocumentation, Radboud University. 224 Marguerite Corporaal and Lottejensen Part IV introduction 225 In 1829 the Italianwriter andpolitical activist Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) published Time frame a survey ofEuropean literatures, in which he reflected upon the distinct nature ofnational literatures: When we^speakofthe "long nineteenth century", we roughly mean theperiod between 1770and 1914. From a culturahmdliterary perspective, 1770 appears to be an unexpected If I open the history ofthe various Literatures of different nations, I observe an alterna- butlogical starting date.The 1770ssaw the'riseofa cult ofsensibility, which centodized tion ofglory and decay,of reciprocal influence, oftransfusion from one to another,as theexpression of (excessive) emotions.Heroines who are prone to faintingand blushing, weUas a continual mutability oftaste, now national, now servile, now corrupt. The Uter- and heroes sobbing convulsively, are no exception in literature which transmitted. this atureofno country isso entirely originalas to havereceived no intermixture offoreign cult,as becomes clearfrom Henry Mackenzie's Scottish novel TheMan of Feeling (1771), mutabiUty, either through tradition in its early days, or through conquest at a later date.' a text which according to its 1886 editor "caught the tone of the French sentiment of his time, has,of course, pleased French critics, andhas been translated into French. "4This Mazzini's observations are quite valid.Although nationality became the primary organiz- transeuropean cult of feeling* can be seen as a response to the Enlightenment* (see ingprinciple ofthe Europeanlandscape and national traditions andpasts were celebrated Chapter 13),which centred on reason as the primary source ofknowledge andauthor- in culture and literature, there were also many transnational developments in the literary ity:Al?ors p^t m, oreemphasis on the role which authentic feelings played in everyday field*. Similar modes, genres and characters emerged in literature acrossEurope. While the experiences Onthe otherhand, it wasprecisely enlightened thought that paved the way growing attention for national pasts made writers such as Sir Walter Scott turn to local formore individualistic perceptions ofthe world and 'its surroundings. By questioning old legends*, histories and traditions, the genre of the historical novel* became prominent dogmatic schemes andattaching more value to people's own authonty, spacewas crcate'd in various European countries as a transnational* genre, ranging from Swedento Spain, for the individual and his or her emotional life. and from England to Russia.2 Furthermore, the historical novel was transnational in that Thistransitional period between the Enlightenment andRomanticism* isoften labeUed writers like Allessandro Manzoni in Italy andJacob van Lennep in the Netherlands were as "Sturmjmd Drang"*, referring to a group of German inteUectuals and poets"who greatlyinspired by the Scottishauthor's style andthemes. In Van Lennep's case, this earned resided inWeimar andplaced emotions at'the heart oftheir artistic activities. Authors'like him the nickname of the DutchWalter Scott. Christoph^MartmWielandJohann Gottfried Herder,Johann Wolfgang van Goethe and Europeanliteratures duringthe long nineteenth century were also essentially transna- Friedrich SchiUer cultivated the idea ofthe poetic genius* aud saw literature'as a"means tionalin severalother respects. The development ofnew printing techniques* which ena- ofexpressing authentic emotions and connecting to primitive natural instincts. Goethe's bled more rapid and cheaper production* ofbooks, in combination with modern forms epistolary novel* DieLeiden des jungen Werthers CThe Sorrows ofYoungWerther', '1774) oftransport which facilitated the dissemination oftexts, meant that literary works were isone ofthe best known examples ofthis new cult offeeling. The unrequited love ofthe readmore widely,and even "travelled" across national borders, either in their originallan- passionate protagonist for the married Charlotte eventuaUy leads him to shoot himself. guageor in translation*.The increasing market of periodicals* also offeredsignificant new T.his. ^ide wasperceived as hi§hly shocking at the time: when the novel inspired~cop'y- platforms for literature: not only on a national level, through their serialization* ofnovels, cat suicides across Europe, it was banned in Denmark and Italy. 5 However, the novelhad for example; but also transnadonally, as foreign writers and their work would often be dis- ^ widetranseuropean impact:it wastranslated into manyEuropean languages, including cussed.Thus, "Portrait of anAuthor, Painted by his Publisher", an article which appeared ^<?6(1774)'Darish (1776)'Dutch (1776), English (1779), Russian (17'8lfand~SwediA in Charles Dickens's journal All theYear Round on 18June 1859, praises the writings of Honore de Balzac, an author who most English readers "unaccustomed to study French From a literary perspective the 1770s marked a new era,but the same canbe argued literature in its native language"would be unfamiliar with,3 and recommends that more froma politic^perspective. The 1770s,marked by the American War of Independence, novels by French writers should be translated into English. !. risJ^f?ea, bolitionistmovement in Britain and the growing awareness of civil rights' The long nineteenth century was certainly the age of"travelling" authors. The Danish on a global scale, can be viewed as leading up to one of the most influential eventTm fairy tale* writer Hans Christian Andersen and British novelist Charles Dickens would European history: the French Revolution. On U July 1789, cmlians stormed the BastiUe. tour across and even beyond Europe, in order to meet foreign writers and give public supported by their democratic motto Liberte, egdite,fraternite. The French King Louis readings. Readers in turn also undertookjourneys to visit the homes of their favourite XVIIwas beheaded andnew forms ofparliamentary rule were introduced.Eulogised authors andlocations they knew from their works,leading to a growingfashionability of ^B^gen, eD^roi^'s. history pamtlng "La]-iberte Guidant IePeuple" ('Liberty LeTdmg literary tourism*.The residence ofthe German poetJohann Wolfgang Goethe (Goethe- People' 1830),this was a watershed event, which changed the political landscape of haus Frankfurt) attracted admirers from all over Europe. The improved modes oftransport Europe drastically and irreversibly. whichincreased authors' and readers' opportunities to travelled to a widerimpact oftexts The revolt qmcHy endedm internal bloodshedbetween rival groups,and resulted in and notions of literature across national boundaries. autocracy of Napoleon Bonaparte. He initiaUy supported the ideals of the French In this introductory chapter to the long nineteenth century, we wiU focus on these an,but gradually started to assume supreme power and crowned himself emperor travelling" aspects of European literatures while, at the same time, emphasizing the role , Se,rlc,h, !111804-The massive anddestrucdve'battles thatwere fought during'the s literature played in shapingnational cultures. For despite the transnationalnature ofmany 1792-1815 had an immense as le ar, transeuropean impact, Napoleon waged war with Low cultural trends and developments, literature was also perceived as the ultimate expression ld'the countries' spain' Italy' Sweden, Russia and Austria.The French of national values and traditions. Su hegem- onybecame one of the driving forces behind the rise of nationalism in Europe, and deeply Part IV introduction 227 226 Marguerite Corporaaland Lottejensen to ensure the security ofEurope by creating a so-called "balance ofpower" which would affectedthe literature ofthose days.It is by no means coincidentalthat satiricalprints and poems flourished in these days of oppression, in particular in England. One of the major prevent nations - in particular France - from once again threatening Europe's stability. novels of the long nineteenth century, LevTolstoy's War and Peace (1869), furthermore The map of Europe was redrawn, creating new national states and confederations, and restoring old monarchies such as France and Spain. demonstrates that this time of upheaval during the Napoleonic wars signified a shared, transeuropeanpast. Whileprimarily setin Moscowand St Petersburg,this novel neverthe- The post-Napoleonic era can be characterized as a period in which nationalist and internationalist interests were often at odds. Nationalism pervaded politics throughout less suggests a broader European vista by including French soldiers and even Napoleoii himselfas speakingcharacters in the narrative. Europe, and also had a cultural component: the press, the arts and literature were filled Literatureand politics were oftenintertwined, which makes it difficultto demarcatethe with patriotic ideology, trying to persuade people to see their nation asthe best ofaUpos- sible worlds. Cultural nationalism became manifest in language emancipation movements boundaries of"the long nineteenth century".This is also the casewhen trying to deter- acrossEurope, for instance in Ireland,Hungary, Belgium and Finland.At the same time, mine wherethe "long nineteenth century"ends. From a cultural point ofview, one could consider the rise ofModernism* in the 1910s as a