Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 9-25-2015 12:00 AM Exploring Consumer Relationships with Human Brands: How Reference Groups, Affiliation Motives, and Biological Sex Predict Endorser Effectiveness Jennifer A. Jeffrey The University of Western Ontario Supervisor Dr. Matthew Thomson The University of Western Ontario Graduate Program in Business A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree in Doctor of Philosophy © Jennifer A. Jeffrey 2015 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the Marketing Commons Recommended Citation Jeffrey, Jennifer A., "Exploring Consumer Relationships with Human Brands: How Reference Groups, Affiliation Motives, and Biological Sex Predict Endorser Effectiveness" (2015). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 3238. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/3238 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact [email protected]. EXPLORING CONSUMER RELATIONSHIPS WITH HUMAN BRANDS: HOW REFERENCE GROUPS, AFFILIATION MOTIVES, AND BIOLOGICAL SEX PREDICT ENDORSER EFFECTIVENESS (Thesis format: Monograph) by Jennifer Jeffrey Graduate Program in Business Administration A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies The University of Western Ontario London, Ontario, Canada © Jennifer Jeffrey 2015 Abstract Using a human brand (commonly referred to in popular press as a celebrity) as a product endorser is a popular marketing tool, and a variety of factors have been shown to influence the effectiveness of this technique. Although human brands are traditionally regarded as aspirational others, a concept based on the reference groups literature, researchers have yet to examine whether adopting a reference group framework is of theoretical or substantive value when predicting a human brand’s endorsement potential. This dissertation explores the issue, arguing that the traditional conceptualizing of human brands as purely aspirational, while not incorrect, is restrictive. Human brands are evolving, with a greater range of individuals seen as human brands and with those brands engaging in more open communications. As a result, consumers see some human brands as similar others and even friends; these concepts are linked with membership groups. In this thesis, I propose and find support for the premise that predicting a human brand’s endorsement potential is best done by assessing both the aspirational and membership elements of the human brand, an approach offering several benefits. To begin, assessing both elements facilitates a deeper exploration of why reference group ratings positively predict endorser effectiveness. I demonstrate that reference group ratings exert their effects by strengthening affiliation motives, and in particular find that whereas aspirational ratings benefit both intrinsic and extrinsic affiliation motives, membership ratings almost exclusively benefit intrinsic affiliation motives. I also find that sex moderates the relative importance of each affiliation motive on behavioural intentions, with females more influenced by intrinsic motives and males more influenced by extrinsic motives. Finally, I investigate how human brands can strengthen their reference group ratings, finding support for the notion that human brands who increase their self-disclosure levels benefit from higher ratings and enhanced persuasiveness as endorsers. I test my propositions across four studies, using a mix of survey and experimental methodologies. Keywords Human brands, reference groups, affiliation motives, self-disclosure, celebrity endorsements ii Acknowledgments There are a great many people who have helped me achieve this important milestone, and I will be forever grateful for their assistance. To begin, I would like to thank the members of my thesis proposal and examination committees: Drs. June Cotte, Dante Pirouz, Rod Duclos, Beth Lee, and Antonia Mantonakis. Thank you all for your wonderful comments, suggestions, and feedback on my thesis. Second, thank you to Lisa Bitacola and Andrew Huff for their help in my data collection efforts; I truly appreciate your help. Third, thank you to all my friends, new and old, for their support and encouragement throughout the process, and in particular to the PhD students and marketing faculty at Ivey. Fourth, to my supervisor Dr. Matt Thomson, I cannot imagine completing this thesis with anyone but you as my advisor. Your friendship, assistance, and encouragement have been instrumental in my success. Finally, I want to thank my family. To my parents, for always being in my corner, to my daughters, for helping keep me grounded, and most of all, to my beloved husband and best friend Tom, for his unfailing support and love throughout. iii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Appendices ............................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................. 9 2 Literature Review and Hypothesis Development .......................................................... 9 2.1 Established Determinants of Endorser Effectiveness ............................................. 9 2.1.1 Parasocial Relationships: An Overview...................................................... 9 2.1.2 Parasocial Relationships: Empirical Support ............................................ 10 2.2 Reference Groups.................................................................................................. 13 2.2.1 Reference Group Effects – Categorical Distinctions and Related Concepts ................................................................................................................... 15 2.2.2 The Relationship Between Aspirational and Membership Evaluations ... 16 2.2.3 Reference Groups and Product Evaluations - Empirical Support ............. 19 2.2.4 Reference Group Effects and Human Brands ........................................... 20 2.3 Reference Group Effects – Types of Influence ..................................................... 23 2.3.1 Value-Expressive Effects – Two Different Mechanisms .......................... 25 2.4 Affiliation Motivation ........................................................................................... 27 2.4.1 Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Instrumental Affiliation Motivations .................. 28 2.4.2 Extending the Affiliation Motivation Distinction ..................................... 30 2.4.3 Malleable Affiliation Motivations ............................................................ 30 iv 2.4.4 Affiliation Motivation and Human Brands ............................................... 32 2.4.5 Implications of Affiliation Motivation on Reference Groups ................... 33 2.5 Moderating Effects of Sex on Affiliation Motives ............................................... 35 2.5.1 Evolutionary Differences in Sex and Relationships ................................. 35 2.5.2 Current Differences in Sex-Based Relationships ...................................... 37 2.5.3 Sex Differences in Marketing Literature .................................................. 38 2.6 Additional Questions Surrounding Reference Groups and Endorser Effectiveness ............................................................................................................................... 40 2.6.1 Fit Differences in Human Brand Types .................................................... 41 2.6.2 Enhancing Reference Group Evaluations through Self-Disclosure .......... 44 2.7 The Current Research ........................................................................................... 48 Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 50 3 Studies .......................................................................................................................... 50 3.1 Study 1 (Pilot) ....................................................................................................... 50 3.1.1 Design ....................................................................................................... 50 3.1.2 Results ......................................................................................................