sustainability Article The Unsustainable Use of Sand: Reporting on a Global Problem Walter Leal Filho 1,2,* , Julian Hunt 3, Alexandros Lingos 1, Johannes Platje 4 , Lara Werncke Vieira 5, Markus Will 6 and Marius Dan Gavriletea 7 1 European School of Sustainability Science and Research, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, D-21033 Hamburg, Germany; [email protected] 2 Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK 3 Energy Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria; [email protected] 4 WSB University in Wroclaw, ul. Fabryczna 29-31, 53-609 Wroclaw, Poland; [email protected] 5 Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul—UFRGS, Porto Alegre 90040-060, Brazil; [email protected] 6 Zittau/Görlitz University of Applied Sciences, Theodor-Körner-Allee 16, D-02763 Zittau, Germany; [email protected] 7 Business Faculty, Babe¸s-BolyaiUniversity, Horea 7, 400038 Cluj–Napoca, Romania; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Sand is considered one of the most consumed natural resource, being essential to many industries, including building construction, electronics, plastics, and water filtration. This paper assesses the environmental impact of sand extraction and the problems associated with its illegal exploitation. The analysis indicates that extracting sand at a greater rate than that at which it is naturally replenished has adverse consequences for fauna and flora. Further, illicit mining activities compound environmental damages and result in conflict, the loss of taxes/royalties, illegal work, and Citation: Leal Filho, W.; Hunt, J.; losses in the tourism industry. As sea-level rise associated with climate change threatens coastal areas, Lingos, A.; Platje, J.; Vieira, L.W.; Will, sand in coastal areas will play an increasingly greater role in determining the amount of damage M.; Gavriletea, M.D. The from floods and erosion. The present analysis points to the need for swift action to regulate sand Unsustainable Use of Sand: mining, monitoring, law enforcement, and international cooperation. Reporting on a Global Problem. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3356. https:// Keywords: sustainability; sand depletion; illegal sand mining; environmental impacts doi.org/10.3390/su13063356 Academic Editor: Antonio Boggia Received: 15 February 2021 Highlights Accepted: 12 March 2021 • The world is facing a global sand crisis Published: 18 March 2021 • Negative environmental impacts of excessive sand exploitation are multiple • Uncontrolled expansion of illegal sand mining: causes and consequences Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in 1. Sand: A Valuable Natural Resource published maps and institutional affil- Sand consumption has increased worldwide, in part due to the growth of the world´s iations. population, increasing standards of living, and rapid urban expansion [1,2]. Sand is used in a wide range of industries and products [3], including water filtration, plastics, and the electronics sector [1]. In fact, almost every house, dam, road, wine glass, and cellphone contains some type of sand-related material [4]. Vast quantities of frack sand are used to Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. extract oil from shale in the fracking industry. As a result of this trend, the United Nations Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Environment Programme considers that sand has become one of the most consumed This article is an open access article natural resources at present [4]. A UNEP report estimates that sand and gravel account for distributed under the terms and up to 85% of the weight of minerals mined globally each year [5]. conditions of the Creative Commons Sand refers to loose granular materials that are produced as a result of the disinte- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// gration of rocks. It is used as a major component for producing concrete and building creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ materials, asphalt, and glass [1,6]. Whereas sand from beaches and rivers is commonly 4.0/). Sustainability 2021, 13, 3356. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063356 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 Sustainability 2021, 13, 3356 2 of 16 Sand refers to loose granular materials that are produced as a result of the disinte- gration of rocks. It is used as a major component for producing concrete and building materials, asphalt, and glass [1,6]. Whereas sand from beaches and rivers is commonly usedused for for the the construction construction sector, sector, desert desert sand sand is is typically typically too too fine fine or or too too smooth smooth to to bind bind buildingbuilding materials. materials. AlmostAlmost every every country country is is dependent dependent on on sand sand imports imports (see (see Figure Figure 1),1), including including those those wherewhere sand sand mining mining activities activities occur. occur. This This is is due, due, in in part, part, to to sand sand supplies supplies being being unevenly unevenly distributeddistributed within within and and across across counties counties and and the the differing differing requirements requirements for for the the type type of of sand sand usedused in in various various industries. industries. FigureFigure 1. 1.World’sWorld’s sand sand importers importers in in 2019. 2019. Source:Source: [7].[7]. SandSand is is an an increasingly increasingly valuable valuable commodity commodity and and is is essential essential to to the the economies economies of of countriescountries around around the the world. world. Many Many industries industries de dependpend on on sand sand as as an an essential essential resource resource in in thethe production production of of various various prod products.ucts. The The sand sand mining mining industry industry contributes contributes to to job job creation creation andand investments investments in in mining mining areas areas and and sand sand exportation exportation promotes promotes economic economic growth. growth. In In short,short, the the sand sand industry industry provides provides economic economic benefits benefits to to countries countries producing producing and and importing importing sand.sand. Sand Sand and and grav gravelel production production is isdominated dominated by by the the United United States, States, Netherlands, Netherlands, Spain, Spain, Turkey,Turkey, and and India India (Table 1 1).). AmongAmong the the countries countries that that import import the the greatest greatest amounts amounts mention men- tioncan can be madebe made of Canada,of Canada, China, China, Belgium, Belgium, Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Singapore, Singapore, and and Germany Germany [8]. [8]. TableTable 1. 1. MajorMajor producers producers of of sand. sand. Country CountryProduction Production in 2019 (in in 1000 2019 Metric (in 1000 Ton) Metric Ton) China China190.000 190.000 United StatesUnited States110.000 110.000 NetherlandsNetherlands 54.000 54.000 Spain Spain36.000 36.000 Turkey 14.000 Turkey 14.000 India 12.000 India 12.000 Malaysia 10.000 GermanyMalaysia 7.500 10.000 United KingdomGermany 4.000 7.500 AustraliaUnited Kingdom3.000 4.000 Source: Modified fromAustralia Garside (2020) [9] 3.000 Source: Modified from Garside (2020) [9]. In 2018, European countries were among the leading exporters, along with North AmericaIn 2018,and Asia European (Figure countries 2). were among the leading exporters, along with North America and Asia (Figure2). Sustainability 2021, 13, 3356 3 of 16 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18 FigureFigure 2. 2.World’sWorld’s sand sand exporters exporters in in 2018. 2018. Source: Source: [7] [7 ]. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, the the extensive extensive use use of of sand andand thethe increase increase in in mining mining activities activities have have neg- negativeative environmental environmental impacts impacts on bothon both the localthe local and globaland global levels [levels10], and [10], urgent and measuresurgent measuresare needed are toneeded limit theseto limit effects. these The effects. environmental The environmental consequences consequences vary, in part, vary, depending in part, dependingon where on sand where is mined sand is and mined sourced. and source Threed. main Three natural main natural sand sources sand sources include include pit sand, pitriver sand, sand, river and sand, sea and sand sea [11 sand]. To [11]. compound To compound the environmental the environmental consequences consequences of legal min-of legaling mining and sourcing, and sourcing, illegal activities illegal activities associated associated with sand with mining sand andmining its transportation and its transpor- have tationbeen have reported beenin reported many parts in many of the parts world. of the They world. most They commonly most commonly occur in underdeveloped occur in un- derdevelopedand developing and nationsdeveloping [5]. nations [5]. ThisThis paper paper assesses assesses the the environmental environmental impact impactss of ofsand sand exploitation exploitation and and the the problems problems associatedassociated with with the the illegal illegal exploita exploitationtion of ofthis this essential essential resource. resource. 2. 2.Methodology Methodology ToTo identify identify the the extent extent to towhich which environmental environmental problems problems are are associated associated with with legal legal