The Royal Society For further information Fuel cycle stewardship in a nuclear renaissance The Royal Society is a Fellowship of more than 1400 outstanding The Royal Society individuals from all areas of science, mathematics, engineering Science Policy Centre and medicine, who form a global scientific network of the highest 6 – 9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG calibre. The Fellowship is supported by over 130 permanent staff with responsibility for the day-to-day management of the Society T +44 (0)20 7451 2500 and its activities. F +44 (0)20 7451 2692 E [email protected] Fuel cycle W royalsociety.org The Royal Society has had a hand in some of the most innovative and life changing discoveries in scientific history. It supports the UK’s brightest and best scientists, engineers and technologists; influences science policy both in the UK and internationally; facilitates research collaboration with the best researchers outside the UK; promotes stewardship in a science and mathematics education and engages the public in lectures and debates on scientific issues. Through these activities, the Society ensures that its contribution to shaping the future of science in the UK and beyond has a deep nuclear renaissance and enduring impact. October 2011 October 2011 Society Royal The ISBN: 978-0-85403-773-5 Centre report 10/11 Science Policy Issued: October 2011 Report 10/11 DES2159 Founded in 1660, the Royal Society is the independent scientific academy of the UK, dedicated to promoting excellence in science Registered Charity No 207043 Price £39 Fuel cycle stewardship in a nuclear renaissance The Royal Society Science Policy Centre report 10/11 Issued: October 2011 DES2159 ISBN: 978-0-85403-891-6 © The Royal Society, 2011 Requests to reproduce all or part of this document should be submitted to: The Royal Society Science Policy 6–9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG T +44 (0)20 7451 2500 E [email protected] W royalsociety.org Cover image: Enrico Fermi, a Nobel Laureate and Foreign Member of The Royal Society, was a giant in 20th century physics making major contributions in quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and nuclear and particle physics. A theorist and experimentalist he gave his name to the prolific family of fundamental particles which have a spin of ½, the fermions. In 1942 he demonstrated the first nuclear chain reaction in Chicago, under the University Football Stadium, paving the way for nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. The cover illustration contains the design of an atomic pile, known today as a nuclear reactor, taken from his and Leo Szilard’s 1944 patent for the ‘Neutronic Reactor’. Contents Summary........... ..............................................4 Chapter 6 – Integrated approaches to fuel cycle management .............45 Recommendations for best practice ..............5 6.1 Best practice for reuse ..................................45 6.2 Best practice for spent fuel storage..............47 Recommendations to the UK .........................7 6.3 Best practice for cradle to grave fuel cycle planning ...............................................49 Chapter 1 – Stewardship challenges for a nuclear renaissance ............8 Chapter 7 – Internationalising the 1.1 The changing geography management of spent fuel ........53 of nuclear power .............................................8 7.1 Cradle to grave fuel cycle services ...............53 1.2 The dual use challenge .................................10 7.2 Options for international reuse......................53 1.3 Report structure ............................................ 11 7.3 Options for international storage ..................54 1.4 Acknowledgements ......................................12 7.4 Options for international disposal .................54 7.5 Regional approaches to spent Chapter 2 – The nuclear fuel cycle ...............13 fuel management ..........................................58 2.1 Reactor basics ...............................................13 2.2 Management options for spent fuel .............15 Chapter 8 – The UK’s role in the development 2.3 Rationales for fuel cycle choices ..................16 of nuclear power ........................61 8.1 A long term strategy Chapter 3 – The changing nature of for nuclear power in the UK ..........................61 the nuclear industry ..................18 8.2 A long term R&D roadmap ...........................61 3.1 Safeguarding civil nuclear power .................18 8.3 A global R&D hub .........................................62 3.2 Separating nuclear weapons programmes from 8.4 Co-ordinating non-proliferation civil nuclear power ........................................18 and nuclear security .......................................63 3.3 Universal implementation of 8.5 Capacity building for non-proliferation international safeguards ................................18 and nuclear security ......................................63 3.4 The unattractiveness of civil materials 8.6 Reusing the UK’s civil stockpile for nuclear weapons use ...............................19 of separated plutonium .................................65 3.5 T he internationalisation and multinational 8.7 The UK’s reprocessing capabilities ...............66 nature of nuclear power ................................21 8.8 Developing the UK’s integrated approach ......................................................67 Chapter 4 – The proliferation resistance 8.9 A World Nuclear Forum ................................67 of spent fuel management ........27 4.1 T he potential of intrinsic List of acronyms ...........................................68 proliferation resistance barriers ....................27 4.2 L imitations of intrinsic proliferation References ....................................................69 resistance barriers .........................................32 4.3 An improved framework for assessing Appendix 1 proliferation resistance ..................................32 Working Group of Experts ....................................72 4.4 N on-proliferation R&D priorities ...................36 Appendix 2 Chapter 5 – Integrated nuclear governance .....41 Details of evidence gathering ...............................73 5.1 Integrated risk management .........................41 5.2 I ntegrated nuclear regulation ........................42 Appendix 3 5.3 I ntegrated corporate governance .................43 Review panel .........................................................78 Fuel cycle stewardship in a nuclear renaissance 3 Summary Many countries worldwide are considering expanding Major security incidents, involving non-state individuals their civilian nuclear power programmes or even or groups, such as criminal networks and terrorist embarking on civil nuclear power for the first time to organisations, have been rare. As demonstrated by the help meet their climate change and energy security attention to nuclear safety post-Fukushima, avoiding needs. Before the earthquake and tsunami hit the complacency is vital to maintain confidence in a Fukushima nuclear power station in Japan, the nuclear renaissance. An integrated approach to risk nuclear industry projected the world was about to assessment and management needs to feature more enter a period of global expansion in nuclear power. prominently at all levels of nuclear decision making Post-Fukushima, this may still remain valid, although from the design and regulation of nuclear facilities to the rate at which nuclear power expands globally the corporate governance of nuclear organisations. may slow. In the rush to construct nuclear reactors, the This so-called ‘nuclear renaissance’ has renewed management of spent fuel and radioactive waste, debate about the relationship between civil nuclear including planning for its disposal, must no longer be power and the proliferation of nuclear weapons, as an afterthought. Currently, there is no operating civil well as other security risks. Although civil nuclear geological disposal facility, although disposal plans are power has its history in nuclear weapons, its future well advanced in some countries. The multi-decade is not. In some countries with nuclear weapons, the to century timescales involved requires long term, civil nuclear industry has become solely a provider strategic planning. The entire fuel cycle needs to be of electricity. The good track record of international considered from cradle to grave to reduce proliferation non-proliferation safeguards suggests alternative and security risks. Long term R&D programmes should pathways may be more likely sources of proliferation be formulated at the outset so that the capacity to than the diversion of nuclear material from civil manage spent fuel and radioactive wastes can be nuclear power programmes. In many countries, delivered in a timely way. Furthermore, R&D provides the industry has moved from being purely state-run, the contingency to address unforeseen changes in national companies into multinational enterprises. policy by keeping future management options open. This increases the transparency of civil nuclear power programmes and this multinational practice A nuclear renaissance has renewed interest in should continue. A fully internationalised nuclear fuel the potential of offering cradle to grave fuel cycle cycle and thoroughly multinationalised global nuclear services that couple the supply of fresh fuel with the industry may be part of the solution to proliferation, management of spent fuel and radioactive wastes.