5 Recovery and Renaissance The ongoing jousting for influence in the Bohemian crownlands took place in a dramatically altered world. The rise of the Turkish threat in the Medi- terranean stimulated navigators from Portugal and Spain, followed quickly by the English, French, and Dutch, to embark on the high seas in search of alternate routes to the riches of the East. The ‘‘Voyages of Discovery’’ shifted the political and economic center of gravity in Europe to the former European periphery through the conquest of overseas empires and the sub- sequent commercial revolution. The widening of the physical horizon had its counterpart in the theoretical understanding of the heavens and the beginnings of the scientific revolution. These changes echoed in cultural life, where the Renaissance superseded the late Gothic, and Italian human- ism found ready imitators throughout Europe. In the Bohemian crown- lands these new trends provided fruitful stimulus to local cultural develop- ments, resulting in a synthesis in which they took on locally specificforms. THE BOHEMIAN KINGDOM IN THE HANDS OF THE ESTATES (1485–1620) Changes on the European stage also affected the Bohemian crownlands and the Czechs. The looming Turkish threat directly con- .......................... 10888$ $CH5 08-05-04 15:18:30 PS PAGE 55 56 THE CZECHS tributed to the eclipse of the Bohemian-Hungarian Jagiellonians by the Habsburgs. While the rise of Muscovy distracted the Polish-Lithuanian Jagiellonians, the Habsburgs united the crowns of St. Stephen and St. Va´clav, once a bone of contention among Prˇemyslids, Luxemburgs, Ma´- tya´s Korvin, and Jagiellonians. Thus it was the Habsburgs who faced the Reformation at the head of the Catholic side. The Protestant Refor- mation struck rich soil in the Bohemian lands, breaking the isolation of the Czech Utraquists. Lutheranism spread rapidly among them and their German-speaking countrymen, while Calvinism influenced the Unity of Brethren. Since the Habsburg king of Bohemia was also Holy Roman Emperor after 1556 and thus secular leader of universal, Catholic Chris- tendom, conflicts between crown and the overwhelmingly Protestant es- tates in Bohemia over political power intersected with, and reinforced, religious divisions. Society and Economy in the Estates Monarchy The estates were fundamental to the structure of society, still theo- retically based on the medieval doctrine of the threefold people, lords, clergy, and others. Each estate within this order was fixed and suppos- edly immutable, though contemporaries complained that pride drove some to seek to rise above their station.1 There were several marginal- ized groups who had no settled place in the order, including vagabonds and beggars, the poorest town-dwellers, wage-laborers, and those con- sidered infidels, such as Jews.2 In the narrower sense, the estates were those whose ownership of land gave them political rights. In this sense the Estates were a political community, and each Bohemian crownland had its own Estates. By the end of the Hussite revolution there were three Estates represented in the Bohemian diet: the lords, the knights, and the free towns.3 In Moravia and Lower Lusatia the church retained its position in the diet. Upper Lusatia’s diet had only two Estates, the lords and the towns; in Silesia there were dietines for some of the indi- vidual principalities, and a general diet of the princes.4 These Estates competed among themselves and with the crown. When Vladislav II assumed the throne, as the Old Czech Annals noted, ‘‘the new king was still young, had no money, no idea how to wage war, and the royal estates and castles were firmly in the hands of the Czech lords who were his supporters.’’5 Royal authority in the Bohemian king- dom weakened further after 1490, when Vladislav also became king of .......................... 10888$ $CH5 08-05-04 15:18:31 PS PAGE 56 Recovery and Renaissance 57 Hungary and moved to Buda. Thereafter, he returned to Prague on two occasions, and then only briefly. The king’s absence meant that the af- fairs of the kingdom were left in the hands of the Estates. The most important political institution of the Estates monarchy was the Land Diet. The diet approved the ruler’s requests for taxes, but it could also legislate, grant citizenship, permit local military forces to be used abroad, and generally seek the common good. The diet’s deci- sions were written into the Land Registers, which made them law. By the late fifteenth century, they appeared in print. The land diet of Bohemia considered itself first among the lands of the Bohemian crown, claiming the right to elect the king. There were local dietines for some frontier areas and the fourteen circuits into which the kingdom was divided. The dietines elected the knightly representatives to the land diet and dealt with circuit affairs. The king could summon a general diet of all five crownlands to meet in Prague. General diets met for royal coronations or to consider pressing matters of defense, religion, or security; eleven times between 1530 and 1595 they were summoned to provide men or money to meet the Turkish threat. Ferdinand I tried to convoke a meet- ing of the Estates of the Bohemian kingdom, the Austrian duchies, and Hungary, but the Bohemian and Hungarian Estates refused to leave their own lands.6 The Land Court was the highest legal instance in the land. An exclu- sively noble tribunal, it had no representation for the towns. The king presided over the court if he were present, and the supreme burggrave in his absence. Its officers included the land judge, the supreme notary, who kept its records, and the supreme chamberlain, who maintained the land registers. These and other holders of land offices amounted to a ‘‘government.’’ Many officials had originally been direct servants of the ruler, but now swore allegiance both to the king and the Estates commu- nity. The supreme burggrave of the Prague castle, who represented the king in his absence, was the most important of them. The supreme chan- cellor gave his consent to the publication of the more important royal decrees, and commanded a chancellery that extended to all five lands of the Crown of St. Va´clav. The chamberlain administered the royal estates including the royal towns. Other officials included the burggraves of Karlsˇtejn and Hradec Kra´love´. The knightly Estate provided the land notary, the burggrave of Hradec Kra´love´, and sometimes the chamber- lain (who otherwise could be a burgher of Prague Old Town); all the other offices were filled by the great lords. These officers made up the .......................... 10888$ $CH5 08-05-04 15:18:31 PS PAGE 57 58 THE CZECHS royal council, granting a relatively small group of powerful lords and knights a preponderant influence in the affairs of the kingdom. This structure remained in place until after 1620.7 Without a strong royal power, conflict within the Estates surfaced easily, especially after the religious peace of Kutna´ Hora. In earlier dec- ades an alliance between the Utraquist lesser nobles and the towns usu- ally countered the largely Catholic greater lords, but shortly after 1485 a realignment took place setting the towns against the nobility (both the lords and the knights). These conflicts arose not only out of the lords’ long-established attitude that they had a special right to decide the king- dom’s affairs, but also from economic motives. The tumultuous century from 1380 to 1483 had a dramatic impact on the lords’ incomes.8 Cash payments from subject peasants and towns declined owing to population loss and inflation, and the lords had to search for other sources of income. Efforts to prevent peasants from leaving their lands culminated in a diet decision of 1487 strictly limiting their rights to move without the lords’ permission. Landlords also in- creasingly used subject labor, or robota, on their own manorial land. The best way out of their problems, many noblemen found, was through their own economic activity. They supported the crafts and products of their subject towns and established their own enterprises, especially fishponds and breweries (a lucrative source of income). These activities directly violated the rights of royal free towns, already affected by the limitations on migration from the countryside, and the burghers refused to accept them unchallenged. At the beginning of the sixteenth century a new legal document, the Vladislav Land Ordinance, strengthened the lords and knights against both the crown and the towns.9 The towns protested against limits on their judicial independence, participation in the diet, and traditional rights to market, brewing, and other privileges, but the king supported the lords. By 1513, armed conflict between towns and lords threatened, but before it came to blows, Vladislav II died. In the St. Va´clav’s Treaty (1517), all three Estates, ‘‘as people of one language and from one king- dom,’’ reached a compromise.10 The lords accepted traditional town rights in judicial matters, but the towns had to give up their exclusive medieval economic privileges. Vladislav’s son and successor, the young king Louis (Ludv´ık, 1516– 1526), resided in Buda, and intervened directly in the Bohemian crown- lands with only limited success, failing to curb the great lords’ powers .......................... 10888$ $CH5 08-05-04 15:18:31 PS PAGE 58 Recovery and Renaissance 59 or to cope with the impact of the Lutheran Reformation. These prob- lems, which would surely have dominated much of his reign, remained unresolved when an Ottoman invasion of Hungary called the twenty- year-old king to the defense of his realm. On August 29, 1526, the Hun- garian army (with some Bohemian allies) was destroyed near Moha´cs, and Louis drowned during the retreat.11 Vladislav II and Maximilian I, the Habsburg emperor, had arranged marriages in 1515 between Louis and Mary, Maximilian’s granddaugh- ter, and between the emperor’s grandson, Ferdinand, and Louis’s sister Anna.