A village dog is not a stray Human-dog interactions in coastal Mexico Eliza Ruiz Izaguirre Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr I.J.M. de Boer Professor of Animal Production Systems Wageningen University Co-promotor Dr C.H.A.M. Eilers Former Assistant professor, Animal Production Systems Wageningen University Other members Prof. Dr H.G.J. Gremmen, Wageningen University Dr B. Beerda, Wageningen University Dr A. Ortolani, Utrecht University Dr A. Ortega Pacheco, Autonomous University of Yucatán, Mexico This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences (WIAS) A village dog is not a stray Human-dog interactions in coastal Mexico Eliza Ruiz Izaguirre Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Monday 14 October 2013 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. Ruiz Izaguirre, Eliza A village dog is not a stray: human-dog interactions in coastal Mexico, 150 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2013) With references, with summaries in English, Spanish, and Dutch ISBN: 978-94-6173-681-9 Caminante no hay camino, se hace camino al andar, al andar se hace camino y al volver la vista atrás se ve la senda que nunca se ha de volver a pisar. Caminante no hay camino, sino estelas en la mar... - Antonio Machado - Abstract Dogs (Canis familiaris) are considered one of the most numerous carnivores worldwide. Although in the Global North dogs are popular companions, that live inside homes, about 80% of the dogs in the world are village dogs. Village dogs are typically free-roaming, scavenge refuse around human dwellings and are associated with one or various households. At present, village dogs in the Global South are a concern for (inter)national organizations and individuals, such as tourists. Concerns arise about: overpopulation, transmission of zoonoses, welfare of village dogs, and issues relating to dog– wildlife interactions, such as predation on wildlife. Dog culling has proved ineffective in managing dog populations, in controlling zoonoses, and preventing wildlife predation, but remains the dominant strategy to manage village dogs in Mexico. The objective of this thesis was to improve the understanding of human–dog interactions in coastal areas of Mexico in order to identify strategies - embedded in the social and cultural context - to manage village dogs. The Pacific Coast of Mexico was used as a case study area because of its high dog density and its importance for tourism and sea-turtle nesting. Village dogs interact with tourists and are known to scavenge sea-turtle nests. Conclusions presented are based on fieldwork conducted in three villages in Oaxaca and two in Michoacán. This fieldwork comprised, among others, interviews with villagers, dog behavioral tests, and radio- tracking of village dogs. Village dogs that live nearby nature protected areas are part of three main systems: the household, the village, and the nature protected area. Humans keep dogs mainly for guarding, as work companions and as children’s playmates. At household level, dogs interact with familiar (i.e. caregivers) and unfamiliar humans (e.g. visitors). At village level, dogs interact with familiar humans from other households, or with unfamiliar humans, such as tourists. At all system levels, village dogs have experiences with humans that may range from positive to negative, and this may be reflected in their behavioral responses towards humans. Dogs reported to engage in human- dog play (mainly with children) were more likely to respond with tail wagging to a caregiver’s call and to approach an unfamiliar human. Dogs can enter a nature protected area (i.e. sea-turtle nesting beach) by themselves or with other dogs or humans. Food is a central element in the above-described holistic system. Village dogs scavenge for food in proximity to humans, beg for food, or prey on sea- turtle eggs. Body condition of village dogs was in general close to optimal, and dogs maintained body condition also in the low season for sea-turtle nesting and tourism. Nest scavenger dogs, however, had a lower metabolic energy intake of tortillas, and a larger mean distance from home compared to non-nest scavengers. This suggests that nest scavenging is hunger-driven, and therefore, solutions need to focus on caregivers’ feeding practices. The keeping of dogs in the above-described system, is subject to clashing perceptions and discourses of external (e.g. tourists, authorities) and internal (villagers) stakeholders. External stakeholders refer to village dogs as stray or abandoned, and any dog that is not totally dependent on humans (e.g. village dog) is considered out of place. Total dependence of dogs on humans is a logical ethical argument deriving from the idea that humans took dogs out of the wild (in line with the ‘Pinocchio theory’). Villagers’ narratives, in contrast, perceive dogs as autonomous and able to take care of themselves (in line with the Village Dog theory of dog self-domestication). Dog welfare problems (i.e. dogs being too thin or sick) in coastal Oaxaca were perceived more by international than by Mexican tourists. Dog predation of sea-turtle nests was an important concern for tourists, but not for internal stakeholders. In conclusion, the findings of this thesis show that village dogs in coastal Mexico are not ‘stray’, but interact with familiar humans from one or various households. Interactions of dogs with humans surpass a purely ecological relationship, as village dogs also fill a social niche and have important functions. Current policies and attempts to manage village dog populations in Mexico are derived from discourses and experiences largely disconnected from the village context. In order to find possible strategies to manage village dog populations, it is necessary to acknowledge the complexity of human–dog interactions, and include the views of both external and internal stakeholders. Table of contents page Chapter 1 General Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Perceptions of village dogs by villagers and tourists in the coastal region of rural Oaxaca, Mexico 13 Chapter 3 Human-dog interactions and behavioral responses of village dogs in two villages of Michoacán, Mexico 37 Chapter 4 Roaming characteristics and feeding practices of village dogs scavenging sea-turtle nests 57 Chapter 5 Dog free-roaming revisited: The case of village dogs in the rural coast of Michoacán, Mexico in the midst of a globalized world 77 Chapter 6 General Discussion 105 Summary 125 Resumen 131 Samenvatting 137 Acknowledgements 143 Curriculum vitae 147 Publications 148 Education certificate 149 Colophon 150 1 General introduction Chapter 1 1.1 Background 1.1.1 Village dogs Dogs (Canis familiaris) are considered one of the most numerous carnivores worldwide with an estimated population of over 700 million (Hughes and Macdonald, 2013). They have been introduced into every continent and island where humans have settled (Wandeler et al., 1993). Although in the Global North dogs are popular companions that live inside homes, about 80% of the dogs in the world can be classified as village dogs (Lord et al., 2012). Village dogs are typically free-roaming animals that scavenge refuse around human dwellings, and associate with one or various households (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001; Boitani et al., 2007). Main characteristics of village dog populations are: 1) a high population turnover, 2) a male-to-female ratio skewed towards males, and 3) a high pup mortality of over 60% (Pal et al., 1998; Pal, 2010). The high population turnover is due to a low life expectancy (of 3–4 years). The skewed male-to-female ratio is possibly anthropogenic, due to culling of female pups (Boitani et al., 2007). At present, village dogs in developing countries are a concern for national and international organizations and individuals, such as tourists. Concerns arise about: overpopulation of village dogs, public health (e.g. dog bites or zoonoses), welfare of village dogs, and issues relating to dog–wildlife interactions, such as predation on wildlife. Village dogs are prolific animals; females are capable of reproducing twice a year (Boitani et al., 2007) and ovulate in spite of having a low body condition (Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007). Furthermore, dogs in general play a role in the transmission of more than 60 zoonoses, of which the most important ones are: rabies, echinococcosis, and leishmaniasis (Meslin et al., 2001). The welfare of dogs in developing countries is a concern for international animal welfare organizations, such as Humane Society International or World Society for the Protection of Animals. Village dogs’ life on the street is considered harsh, and dogs in many areas appear underfed or sick (WSPA, 2012). The sight of dogs on the street, furthermore, may give tourists from the Global North the impression that villagers do not care as much for their dogs as they do (Fielding, 2008). Another concern is that of village dogs entering nature protected areas in tropical regions of developing countries. As the pressure on endangered wildlife increases and human settlements get closer to nature protected areas, village dog–wildlife interactions are likely to increase in the coming years (Butler and Du Toit, 2002). Village dogs enter the nature reserves, where they may act as competitors for wild scavengers (Butler et al., 2004), prey on various 2 General introduction small mammals (Paschoal et al., 2012; Silva-Rodríguez and Sieving, 2011), reptiles (Kruuk and Snell, 1981), and young ungulates (Manor and Saltz, 2004), and transmit diseases to wildlife (Butler et al., 2004; Fiorello et al., 2006). Outbreaks of diseases or overpopulation of dogs in general have been controlled by dog culling since ancient times.