Indigenous Australians and Islam: Spiritual, Cultural, and Political Alliances David Edward Lawson BSocSc (Hons) BScSc A thesis submitted in the School of Social Work and Human Services, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. December 2010 Indigenous Australians and Islam ii Acknowledgements Whatever insights that emerge from this study, are owed to the many Indigenous, Muslim, and Indigenous/Muslim participants and associates who generously gave of their time and experiences. Special thanks and appreciation to Shahid Malik, Adam Bowden, and Beylal Racheha. To my supervisors Dr. Hossein Adibi and Professor Carl Trocki go my sincere appreciation for their valued guidance, wisdom, and patience. I am grateful to my fellow colleagues in the now defunct School of Humanities and Human Services, Carseldine Campus, for their invaluable support, encouragement, and collegial integrity. Finally my appreciation and thanks to Dr Kerryann Cook who demonstrated by example and attitude what it takes to produce a successful Ph.D. iv Abstract Keywords : Indigenous Australians; Islam in Australia; Muslims; Religious conversion; discrimination; resistance politics; empowerment. This thesis examines why and how Indigenous Australians convert to Islam in the New South Wales suburbs of Redfern and Lakemba. It is argued that conventional religious conversion theories inadequately account for religious change in the circumstances outlined in this study. The aim of the thesis is to apply a sociological-historical methodology to document and analyse both Indigenous and Islamic pathways eventuating in Indigenous Islamic alliances. All of the Indigenous men interviewed for this research have had contact with Islam either while incarcerated or involved with the criminal justice system . The consequences of these alliances for the Indigenous men constitute the contribution the study makes to new knowledge. The study employs a socio-historical and sociological focus to account for the underlying issues by a literature review followed by an ethnographic participant observation methodology. In-depth open-ended interviews with key informants provided the rich qualitative data to compliment literature review findings. For the Indigenous people involved in this study, Islamic religious identity combined with resistance politics formed a significant empowering framework. For them it is a symbolic representation of anti-colonialism and the enduring scourge of social dysfunction in some Indigenous communities. v Indigenous Australians and Islam vi Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Context and orientation of the study 1 1.2 Outline of thesis aims, themes, and objectives 7 1.3 Thesis conceptual and theoretical rationale 9 1.4 Primary objectives described 13 1.5 Review of orienting literature 15 1.6 Outline of chapters 20 2.0 Underlying Issues: Context and Analysis 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 A history of Indigenous marginalisation, dispossession and control 23 2.3 Identity and diversity issues and concepts 25 2.4 Social exclusion and identity 28 2.5 Cultural trauma and intergenerational disadvantage 31 2.5.1 Collective cultural trauma as a symptom of imperial, colonial, and contemporary exploitation 31 2.5.2 Explaining cultural trauma 32 2.5.3 Indigenous Australians and a case for a traumatised collective 33 2.5.4 Collective identity and trauma recognition 39 2.5.5 Key historical processes and era’s revealing potential and actual trauma producing conditions for Indigenous people 41 2.5.6 Cultural trauma and African Americans 44 2.5.7 African American example of resistance culture 45 2.5.8 Resistance culture and African American Islam 47 2.5.9 African Americans, Indigenous Australians and prison 50 2.6 Discussion 52 2.7 Conclusion 53 3.0 Methodology 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Methodology rationale 55 3.3 Participant population 56 3.4 Procedures 56 3.4.1 Data collection methodology 59 3.5 Ethnographic and case study methods 61 3.5.1 Defending against claims of representivity 64 3.5.2 Burawoy and the Manchester School 65 3.5.3 Mitchell’s elaboration of Gluckman 65 3.5.4 Limitations of ethnographic and case research 68 3.6 What of the researcher/analyst? 71 3.7 Ethical considerations 73 3.8 Contribution to Knowledge 73 3.9 Fieldwork and interview data 74 3.10 Researcher field observations 75 3.11 Explanation of fieldwork priorities 76 3.12 Main fieldwork events 77 vii 3.13 Timeline of Sydney fieldwork 77 3.13.1 Fieldwork overview 77 3.14 Overview of the search for respondents 79 3.15 Timeline and fieldwork activity 81 3.16 Timeline of process to apply for permission to conduct research within NSW Corrective Services institutions 94 3.16.1 Background 94 3.16.2 Procedure and timeline 95 3.17 Summary and conclusions 98 4.0 Interview Data Results 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Interview Transcript 1 of 2 99 4.3 Themes and issues arising from interview one 120 4.4 Interview Transcript 2 of 2 120 4.5 Themes and issues arising from interview two 139 4.6 Thematic analysis 140 4.7 Theme summary 160 4.8 Discussion 162 5.0 Theoretical and Conceptual Themes 167 5.1 Overview 167 5.2 An outline of global themes and influences 168 5.2.1 Globalisation and fundamentalisms 170 5.2.2 Globalisation and minorities 176 5.2.3 Globalisation and civil society 179 5.2.4 Global forces and Australian politics and culture 182 5.2.5 Neoliberalism and religious belief and practice 185 5.2.6 Contested multicultural definitions 187 5.2.7 Testing Australian multiculturalism 188 5.2.8 Issues of religious diversity and multiculturalism 190 5.2.9 Indigenous ‘rights’ literature and resistance politics 194 5.2.10 Secularisation and religious resurgence 195 5.2.11 Secularism and political Islam 197 5.2.12 Secularisation and civil religion 198 5.3 Underlying factors associated with Muslim discrimination 199 5.4 Re-grouping as labelled minorities 201 5.5 Religion and theoretical constructs 201 5.6 Conventional theoretical approaches to religious conversion 203 5.6.1. Psychological aspects of conversion 204 5.6.2 Sociological aspects of conversion 206 5.6.3 Religious conversion themes discussion 208 5.7 Religion and religious practices in Australia 210 5.7.1 Evangelical influences 212 5.8 Pierre Bourdieu’s theoretical influences 217 5.8.1 Terminology, concepts and analysis 217 5.8.2 Social solidarity and social cohesion 221 5.9 Social movements 224 5.10 Collectivities and movements: joining the links 230 viii 5.11 Discussion and conclusions 232 6.0 Islam & Australian society: themes and perspectives 237 6.1 Introduction 237 6.2 Analytical and methodological overview 239 6.3 Islam in Australia: a sociological and historical overview 239 6.4 Phases of Islamic influence in Australia 240 6.4.1 Pre-1788 Muslim contact literature 242 6.4 2 The Macassan contact 242 6.4.3 Mythology, ritual, and Islam 244 6.4.4 Malay Muslim pearl divers 247 6.4.5 Cocos and Christmas Islander Muslims 250 6.4.6 The Afghan influence 251 6.4.7 Javanese indentured labourers 254 6.4.8 The Lebanese and Turkish Muslim influences in Australia 256 6.4.9 The Albanians in North Queensland 259 6.4.10 Islam and Australian ‘fear politics’ 260 6.4.11 Muslim experiences in times of national insecurity 262 6.4.12 The construction of ‘Lebanese crime gangs’ in Sydney 264 6.5 Discussion 265 6.6 Conclusion 268 7.0 Structures of power & Indigenous incarceration 271 7.1 Introduction 271 7.2 Royal Commissions and conflicting theories 272 7.2.1 Royal Commission outcomes 275 7.3 Definition of ‘underlying issues’ in relation to Indigenous disadvantage 276 7.4 Systemic and institutional racism in the criminal justice system 277 7.5 Underlying issues: the importance of context 280 7.6 Literature and analysis 281 7.6.1 The colonial era: regulation and governance of Indigenous Australians 282 7.6.2 The ‘Protection’ era: social Darwinism, segregation and control 286 7.6.3 The assimilation era: the rationalities of racial governance 290 7.6.4 The new culture of punishment: reversal and continuities 293 7.6.5 Redfern and political considerations: race and policing 295 7.6.6 Alcohol abuse and the criminal justice system 297 7.7 Discussion 298 7.8 Conclusion 301 ix 8.0 Indigenous Australians, Islam, and Alliances 305 8.1 Introduction 305 8.2 Identity (re)formation and Islam in prison 306 8.3 Identity and self-esteem 307 8.4 Islam and the prison system 309 8.5 An explanation of the radicalisation process within a prison environment 311 8.6 Alliances and associations within the prison system 315 8.7 The extent to which Indigenous alignment with Islam has to do with identity politics 316 8.8 Is Jihadism the new threat to replace Indigenous statehood? 317 8.9 Conclusion 321 9.0 Discussion: Implications and outcomes 325 9.1 Introduction 325 9.2 Summary of themes 325 9.3 Implications for the research topic 328 9.4 The Nation of Islam example 332 9.5 Conclusion 335 10.0 Conclusions 337 10.1 Summary of thesis argument 337 10.2 Summary of the conceptual process 338 10.3 Future directions 346 Glossary and Terminology 349 Appendix A 353 Non-Indigenous Converts to Islam survey 353 Bibliography 367 x Tables and Figure Table 1 Muslim by Indigenous Status by Sex 80 Table 2 Major Religious Affiliations in Australia 212 Table 3 Religious Affiliation by Census Years by Percentage Change 213 Table 4 Australian Muslims - 2006 Census 238 Table 5 Religions in Australia 238 Table 6 Muslims in Australia by State and Territory 238 Table 7 Muslims in Australia by Capital Cities 238 Figure 1 Affiliation of Australians of all ages to major non-Christian religions 214 xi Indigenous Australians and Islam xii 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Context and orientation of the study The inspiration for this research project originated from a February 2003 broadcast of a Special Broadcasting Services (SBS) documentary entitled ‘Islam Dreaming’ (SBS, 2003).