FROM PROTEST TO PRAXIS: A HISTORY OF ISLAMIC SCHOOLS IN NORTH AMERICA by Nadeem Ahmed Memon A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Theory and Policy Studies Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto © Copyright by Nadeem Ahmed Memon (2009) Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l’édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-61032-9 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-61032-9 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l’Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L’auteur conserve la propriété du droit d’auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protège cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author’s permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n’y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. FROM PROTEST TO PRAXIS: A HISTORY OF ISLAMIC SCHOOLS IN NORTH AMERICA Doctor of Philosophy, 2009 Nadeem Ahmed Memon Department of Theory and Policy Studies University of Toronto Abstract This work attempts to achieve two overarching objectives: firstly to trace the historical growth of Islamic schools in North America and secondly, to explore the ideological and philosophical values that have shaped the vision of these schools. The historical growth of Islamic schools in North America has been led by two distinct communities among Sunni Muslims: the indigenous and the immigrant. Specific to the North American Muslim diaspora “indigenous” represents the African American Muslim community of Imam Warith Deen Mohammed (1933-2008), and “immigrant” refers to the generation of Sunni Muslims who settled in North America in the 1960s and 1970s. Through oral history, this study attempts to capture the voices, sentiments, and aspirations of those that struggled to establish the earliest full-time Islamic schools. The study examines these voices for the ways Islamic education is defined differently based on generational, contextual, and ideological perspectives. Recognizing the diverse lived experiences of Muslim communities in North America, the findings are organized in four distinct, yet often overlapping historical phases that map the growth and development of Islamic schooling. The four phases of Protest, Preservation, Pedagogy, and Praxis also represent how the aims of Islamic education have evolved over time. ii From the Nation of Islam and their inherent vision of equality through resistance, the earliest attempt at establishing schools for Muslim children began in the 1930s. The transition of the Nation of Islam into a community redefined by the teachings of mainstream Islam coupled with the settlement of substantial immigrant Muslim communities altered the discourse from protest to identity preservation in the 1980s. Collaboration between the “indigenous” and “immigrant” communities defined a concerted effort to improve the quality of Islamic schools in the 1990s. And post 9/11, the discourse of inward-looking school improvement shifted once again to outward praxis. The historical mapping of the vision of Islamic schooling between communities also allows for the exploration of how interpretations of the Islamic tradition inform the pedagogy of schools. Through separate histories and religious perspectives, this study seeks to explore the complexities of the aims of Islamic schools, both between communities and within them. iii Acknowledgements “Say: ‘Think, if your water were to sink down into the earth, who would give you gushing water in its place?’” (Qur’an 67:30) If there is one thing that has been reinforced on this journey, it is that there is only one direction to turn to for help. In turning in that direction, He then facilitates circumstances, opens avenues that outwardly seemed impenetrable, changes the hearts of those who may be resistant, and puts people in place to give love, support, understanding, and words of encouragement. Therefore, I begin by thanking Allah first and foremost. I then would like to acknowledge the professional and fraternal contributions of all those who I have been honoured to have gained inspiration from. With the utmost sincerity, I recognize that supporting a doctoral candidate over a journey that spans years requires patience and more patience as we progress through moments of small peaks and what appear to be deep valleys. Much of the inspiration for this journey, for the questions that frame this study, and for the ways in which I sought to understand the development of Islamic schools must be attributed to my teacher and mentor, Nazim Baksh. Over numerous conversations at the “Star-Baksh” across the CBC and in between our memorable squash games, I gained an appreciation for asking difficult questions and thinking anew. The second thrust of my inspiration came through two close friends who were kind enough to take me under their wing during their own doctoral journeys. I am indebted to both Dr. Atif Khalil and Dr. Mohammed Rustom for the numerous times you both attempted to teach me Arabic. I have to shamelessly admit I came to those Arabic classes more for your words of advice and encouragement in relation to my thesis over iv actually learning Arabic. And to Mohammed I am also indebted to the number of red pens you exhausted in reading drafts of this thesis. To my committee, I could not have asked for one that was more supportive. To my supervisor, Dr. Ruth Sandwell, I thank you for taking me on, for being available whenever I needed to meet, but most of all, for the constant positive reinforcement you gave. To Dr. John Portelli, after taking a number of your classes during graduate studies, having you on my master’s and now my doctoral committee, I thank you for always asking me questions I could not answer. To Dr. Sarfaroz Niyozov, I will never overlook your support and encouragement that has opened doors to make my research relevant at OISE. To my external, Dr. Aminah McCloud I thank you for pushing me to think deeply about what I have written and to anticipate the lived reality that the tensions I have addressed still exist. And to Dr. Jasmin Zine, I have saved you for last because my indebtedness to you spans beyond the scope of this study. As I reflect, I am still unclear what I did to deserve to be taken under your wing for the past four years. I cannot express enough gratitude for the doors you opened for me with respect to conferences, publications, and community work. In most, if not all of my academic work thus far, I have but carried a torch you lit. I close my acknowledgements with the one person whose presence in my life is truly a testament to Allah’s mercy. To my wife, Nazneen Wajid, I am confident that I will never be able to outdo or even match your emotional commitment to my personal aspirations. It is without doubt that this study is completed because of your intuition of my needs, your unwavering confidence in my limited potential, and your every sacrifice along the way. v Acronyms AMM American Muslim Mission CISNA Council of Islamic Schools in North America CMS Clara Muhammad Schools IIIT International Institute of Islamic Thought ISNA Islamic Society of North America MAS Muslim American Society MSA Muslim Students Association NOI Nation of Islam SCMS Sister Clara Muhammad Schools WCIW World Community of Al-Islam Glossary of Arabic Terms ‘Aqida/ ‘Aqa’id foundational beliefs/tenets of faith ‘Asabiyyah group solidarity, cultural community building ‘Ilm knowledge Akhlaq character/behaviour Allah God Ayah sign, verse of the Qur’an Fiqh Islamic law Fitrah natural inclination, natural state Hadith a saying, teaching of the Prophet Muhammad Ibadah worship Imam religious leader of a congregation Islam the religion of Muslims Jahiliyyah ignorance Khalifah vicegerent Madrasah (pl. madaris) traditional school, place of learning Mizan balance, scale Muhammad (Prophet) the final prophet of Islam Mujaddid renewer of faith Nafs inner self Qadr power, strength Qur’an final revelation of Islam Salafiyyah an ideology/perspective of contemporary Islam that emphasizes returning to core Islamic beliefs as they were practiced by the salaf (earliest generations of Muslims Seerah the life of the Prophet Muhammad Sheikh/Shaykh scholar of the Islamic sciences, not necessarily a leader of a congregation Sunnah the way of the Prophet Muhammad Tafsir interpretation of the Qur’an vi Taqwa belief, certainty of God Tarbiyah nurturing wholeness Tawhid the belief in One God and in the finality of the Prophet Muhamad Ummah global Muslim community vii Contents Abstract..............................................................................................................................