Alleviating the Clash of Ignorance(s): An Ismaili Muslim Initiative in Canada Alyshea Cummins M.A. Wilfrid Laurier University, 2012 Thesis submitted to the University of Ottawa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Religious Studies Department of Classics and Religious Studies Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Alyshea Cummins, Ottawa, Canada, 2021 Alleviating the Clash of Ignorance(s) - ii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ II ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................. V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................. VIII LIST OF CHARTS .................................................................................................................................................... IX LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................................... X LEGEND ..................................................................................................................................................................... XI I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 1 CONTEXT ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 DEFINING ISLAMOPHOBIA ....................................................................................................................... 3 ISLAMOPHOBIA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES........................................................................................... 5 TAKFIRISM AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ................................................................................................. 13 MUSLIM RESPONSE TO ISLAMOPHOBIA ............................................................................................. 19 ISMAILI RESPONSE TO ISLAMOPHOBIA .............................................................................................. 21 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS CHAPTERS ............................................................................................... 24 II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 26 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................................. 26 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 31 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 31 Reflections and Challenges: Insider and Outsider.......................................................................... 37 Research Sample ............................................................................................................................. 43 Research Design and Data Collection ............................................................................................ 44 Data Analysis and Synthesis............................................................................................................ 49 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................................... 51 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................ 53 III. KNOW YOUR NEIGHBOUR: WHO ARE THE ISMAILIS? ............................................................... 56 WHO ARE THE ISMAILIS?......................................................................................................................... 57 The Imamat ...................................................................................................................................... 59 SHI’A ISMAILI HISTORY ........................................................................................................................... 63 The Fatimid Empire, 909-1171 ....................................................................................................... 66 The Alamut-Period, 1090-1256 ....................................................................................................... 68 ISMAILIS IN THE MODERN ERA ............................................................................................................. 71 The Aga Khan III ............................................................................................................................. 71 The Ugandan Exodus ...................................................................................................................... 80 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................ 84 IV. ISMAILI PRESENCE AND ENGAGEMENT IN CANADA ................................................................. 86 MUSLIMS IN CANADA .............................................................................................................................. 87 ISMAILIS IN CANADA ............................................................................................................................... 89 ISMAILI ORGANIZATION ......................................................................................................................... 92 ISMAILI ACTIVITY IN CANADA .............................................................................................................. 94 Alleviating the Clash of Ignorance(s) - iii THE ISMAILI PLURALISM PROJECT..................................................................................................... 100 Why Canada? ................................................................................................................................ 105 The Global Centre for Pluralism................................................................................................... 110 The Muslim Literacy Project ......................................................................................................... 113 The Ismaili Identity Project ........................................................................................................... 114 CHAPTER SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 115 V. THE MUSLIM LITERACY PROJECT ................................................................................................. 118 RELIGIOUS ILLITERACY ........................................................................................................................ 119 The Importance of Religious Literacy ........................................................................................... 121 The Muslim Literacy Project: An Ismaili Initiative....................................................................... 123 The Clash of Ignorance ................................................................................................................. 124 Internal Community Efforts ........................................................................................................... 127 THE AGA KHAN MUSEUM ..................................................................................................................... 128 Background ................................................................................................................................... 128 Why Canada? ................................................................................................................................ 132 Why a Museum? ............................................................................................................................ 134 Religious Literacy.......................................................................................................................... 137 Muslim Identity .............................................................................................................................. 144 ISLAMIC GARDENS ................................................................................................................................. 156 Aga Khan Park (Toronto).............................................................................................................. 158 Aga Khan Garden (Edmonton)...................................................................................................... 161 SHAPING PLURALISTIC DISPOSITIONS IN EDUCATION ................................................................. 169 CHAPTER SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 172 VI. THE ISMAILI IDENTITY PROJECT ..................................................................................................