The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts BRIAN BORU: KING, HIGH-KING, AND EMPEROR OF THE IRISH A Thesis in History by David B. Beougher © 2007 David B. Beougher Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2007 The thesis of David B. Beougher was reviewed and approved* by the following: Benjamin T. Hudson Professor of History and Medieval Studies Thesis Adviser Chair of Committee Carol A. Reardon Professor of Military History Janina Safran Associate Professor of History Baruch Halpern Professor of Ancient History, Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies Sally McMurry Head and Professor Department of History *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation studies the career of Brian ”Bórumha” mac Cennétig from its beginning with his election to the kingship of his ancestral kingdom of Dál Cais in 976 until his death as the high-king of Ireland at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. He was arguably the most successful Irish king of the Middle Ages, and his sobriquet “bórumha” (“cattle tribute”), usually Anglicized as “Boru,” refers to his right to the reign over the island. Special emphasis is placed on the development of his military strategy as he progressed from regional prince to lordship over the entire island. Brian’s career has not received the scholarly attention given to his contemporaries elsewhere. His reign is either dealt with superficially in brief essays or treated more fully by writers interested in sensationalism. A careful study of Brian’s strategy and operational method reveals that they continuously evolved during the course of his reign. This is contradictory to conventional wisdom that believes Irish military development to be static after the ninth century. Brian was a careful student of his enemies and neighbors. He increasingly relied on fleets, similar to the Vikings, to provide transportation and used a series of fortifications, in imitation of the Anglo-Saxons and Franks, both for defensive, as well as offensive operations. An argument to be made here is that the evolution of Brian’s strategies can best be understood by examining his career in stages. The initial decade of his rule was spent gaining and consolidating authority within the southern province of Munster. From 985 to 1002, Brian overcame rebellion within Munster and then expanded his rule to include the southern half of Ireland as well as gaining the submission of the previous high-king and the Viking center of Dublin. The next decade reflected the mature campaigns of Brian as he moved into the northern kingdoms bringing them under his nominal control by the year 1012. The final years of his life saw Brian responding to revolts and fighting his final battle at the field of Clontarf, just outside of Dublin. Another theme of this work is that Brian must be placed within the context of his European contemporaries. Whatever the typical Irish kingship might have been, Brian was using tactics and methods usually believed to have been limited to Anglo-Saxon or continental monarchs. He consciously attempted to expand and define his authority in terms similar to those used by the Holy Roman Emperors, the Capetian kings of Francia, and the Anglo-Saxon kings of the family of Alfred the Great. Brian’s use of fleets, fortifications, and mercenaries combined with his efforts to secure the support of the church; all reflect an awareness of historical precedent and inspiration from outside Ireland. Contrary to the popular perception of Brian as the liberator of Ireland from foreign dominance, he purposely used outsiders to expand his authority. Brian “Boru” combined Irish tradition with innovation to become the most successful Irish king of his time. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures v Acknowledgements vi Introduction 1 Chapter 1 – The Dál Cais before Brian 23 Chapter 2 – Initial Expansion and Campaigns to 984 AD 49 Chapter 3 – Becoming High-King, 985 AD to 1002 AD 96 Chapter 4 – The Mature Campaigns of Brian Boru to 1012 AD 137 Chapter 5 – Revolt, Rebellion and the Battle of Clontarf, 174 Conclusion 229 Bibliography 249 iv List of Figures 1-1 Map of Approximate Provincial Borders 24 1-2 Map of Dynastic Families 26 1-3 View from Kilfinane, looking SE into Cork 46 2-1 Map of Brian’s attacks in 977 64 2-2 Map of 978 Campaign 70 2-3 Map of 979 Campaign 74 2-4 Map of Brian’s control as of 981 78 2-5 Map of Events of 982 79 2-6 Map of 983 Campaigns 82 2-7 Map of 984 Campaigns 93 3-1 Beal Boru, tribute collection site 100 3-2 Map of Events of 985 101 3-3 Map of Brian’s Circuit of the South 104 3-4 Map of Brian’s Residences 108 3-5 Map of 988 Campaign 111 3-6 Map of Events of 990-993 115 3-7 Map of Brian’s Campaigns in the East 991-996 119 3-8 Map of Events of 997 121 3-9 Map of Brian’s 999 Attack 127 3-10 Map of Events 1000-1002 134 4-1 Map of Routes 1002 138 4-2 Map of 1004 Campaign 146 4-3 Map of 1005 Route 149 4-4 Map of 1006 Campaign 156 4-5 Map of 1010 Campaign 160 4-6 Map of 1011 Campaign 161 4-7 Consolidated Map of Routes 168 4-8 Map of 1007 171 5-1 Map of Sitric’s emissaries 182 5-2 Picture of Trelleborg walls, Sweden 184 5-3 Picture of village walls at Fotevikin, Sweden 185 5-4 Forces arrayed battalions in Column 204 5-5 Forces arrayed battalions on line 205 5-6 Battalions in Column as depicted in Cogadh Gaedhel re Gallaibh 207 5-7 Battalions on Line following Njal’s Saga 209 5-8 Initial Disposition of Troops for Battle 211 5-9 Diagram of the Beginning of the Initial Engagement 213 5-10 Diagram of the Decisive Moment 215 5-11 Diagram of Murchad’s Charge 219 5-12 Diagram of the Last Stand and Path of Flight 223 v Acknowledgements Portions of this thesis were funded by a faculty research grant from the Dean, United States Military Academy and by the General Omar N. Bradley Foundation. vi Introduction In the 10th century, continental European rulers such as Otto I looked to Charlemagne as a model for legitimacy. Their supporters described them with the term “emperor” in articulating their right to rule. These ideas had a wide distribution. Otto’s son Otto II is called “emperor” by a contemporary in the list of kings inserted in the Irish poem Saltair na Rann. The term invoked religious sanction of rule, the approval of God, and evoked memories of the great lords of classical antiquity. Such authority exceeded that coming from the people and collective laws justifying, and limiting, the roles and responsibilities of medieval kings who were the descendants of the war leader of the barbarians. Imperial claims encompassed far greater sovereignty than the territorial extent of a kingship of a particular people. 1 In the year 1005 A.D., an Irish king named Brian “Bórumha” mac Cennétig (Brian Boru) from the southern kingdom of the Dál Cais asserted his right to the title of Imperatoris Scotorum , “the emperor of the Irish.” Never before had the term been used for an Irish prince; after Brian’s death in 1014 it would not be used again. This reliance on a non-insular archetype distinctively marks Brian's rise and rule. He demonstrated an unmatched ability to assert his authority in Ireland. The outline of his life is easily divided 1 Similar changes were taking place in the 9th and 10th century Anglo- Saxon kingdoms, see D.P. Kirby, The Earliest English Kings (London: Routledge, 1991) pages 164-170. 1 chronologically into quarters and provides the framework for this narrative. Each of these periods will receive detailed examination in the following chapters, but a brief overview is useful. Brian mac Cennétig became king of Dál Cais in the year 976, following the murder of his brother Mathgamáin. The death of Mathgamáin marked a turning point in Brian's life and he slowly began to deviate from normal Irish princely practice. The first activities that the annals record for him involve the exacting of revenge against all who were involved in the murder. His success continued as he attempted to assert himself as the king of Munster, a lordship claimed by his brother. His initial forays are typical of other Irish kings, what seemed like an endless series of raids and reprisals. The year 984 marked the consolidation of his rule over Munster and the close of the first quarter of his rule. Brian began a campaign to have his lordship recognized throughout southern Ireland, which was complete in 997 when he and Máel Sechnaill II, the Uí Néill high king, divided the political domination of the island between themselves. Máel Sechnaill’s submission to Brian in 1002 ends this chapter of his life. Towards the end of the initial consolidation of his domain Brian cultivated his relationship with the Church. He used his influence to gather important ecclesiastical positions for his brother Marcan in 990 AD. The positive relationship between Church and Dál Cassian king would play an ever more important role as Brian began to look at the possibility of greater 2 conquest. Brian gained control of Dublin after the battle of Glenn Máma in 999 AD, and with that prize increased his economic and military advantage over his northern rival Máel Sechnaill.