INSTITUTIONAL PLURALISM IN SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE INTEGRATION OF TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN BOTSWANA AND SOUTH AFRICA Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i. Br. vorgelegt von Christine Pörsel aus Altdöbern SS 2017 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Reinhart Kößler Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Gregor Dobler Vorsitzende/r des Promotionsausschusses der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen und der Philosophischen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Joachim Grage Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 26.03.2018 i Contents Overview tables ........................................................................................................... iv List of abbreviations ..................................................................................................... v Definition of Tswana terms .......................................................................................... v Part I: The Background And Historical Context Of The Research ...................... 1 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The topic of the research – Background and current state of research .............. 1 1.1.1 Some introductory notes on traditional leadership ................................... 1 1.1.2 Traditional institutions and institutional pluralism – Origins and definitions ................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Main aims of the research – Special focus and guiding hypotheses ................ 17 1.3 Research design and data collection ................................................................ 19 1.3.1 Design of the research – The framework ................................................ 19 1.3.2 The Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela – Introduction of the case study .................... 23 1.3.3 Data collection and evaluation – The empirical research ....................... 27 1.3.4 Limitations of the research ..................................................................... 32 1.4 Structure of the chapters ................................................................................... 34 2 Historical integration of traditional institutions in Botswana and South Africa .... 37 2.1 Colonial encounters in Botswana and South Africa – The emergence of a pluralistic legal and institutional order ............................................................. 37 2.1.1 The Bechuanaland Protectorate .............................................................. 37 2.1.2 The Transvaal and the Union of South Africa ........................................ 43 2.2 Traditional institutions and the apartheid era in South Africa ......................... 47 2.3 Democratisation processes in Southern Africa ................................................ 49 2.3.1 Independence and democratisation in Botswana in the 1960s ............... 49 2.3.2 Democratisation in South Africa in the 1990s ........................................ 52 ii Part II: The Framework Of The Institutional Pluralism In Botswana And South Africa .............................................................................................................. 54 3 The regulatory framework and institutional set-up ................................................ 54 3.1 Levels of administration, government and jurisdiction.................................... 54 3.2 Institutional pluralism – The legal framework ................................................. 57 3.2.1 Constitutional provisions on traditional leadership and local governance .............................................................................................. 57 3.2.2 Main legislation on traditional institutions ............................................. 62 3.2.3 Regulatory framework and structure of the local government system ... 67 3.2.4 Legislation related to law and the local court system ............................. 72 3.2.5 Legal framework on land rights and mineral resources exploitation ..... 76 3.3 Major changes to the legislative framework since democratisation – Origins and implications ............................................................................................... 83 Part III: Selected Consequences Of The Institutional Pluralism ......................... 86 4 Land and mineral resources – Impact of the regulatory framework ....................... 86 4.1 The changing resource basis of traditional institutions in Botswana ............... 86 4.2 Financial dependence and governmental control of traditional institutions .... 87 4.3 Platinum mining, local transformation and adaptation in rural South Africa .. 90 4.4 Mineral wealth and resource extraction in traditional communities ................ 94 5 Impact of the integration of traditional institutions on local governance ............. 103 5.1 Efficiency in the provision of infrastructure, services and development initiatives ........................................................................................................ 103 5.1.1 Botswana ............................................................................................... 103 5.1.2 South Africa .......................................................................................... 111 5.2 Stakeholder relations at local level ................................................................ 121 5.2.1 Botswana ............................................................................................... 121 5.2.2 South Africa .......................................................................................... 127 5.3 Participation and representation of local interests ......................................... 134 5.3.1 Botswana ............................................................................................... 134 5.3.2 South Africa .......................................................................................... 140 iii 6 Effects on traditional communities and the local population ............................... 150 6.1 Legal rights and empowerment of the rural population ................................. 150 6.1.1 Botswana – Questions of gender, human rights and minorities ........... 150 6.1.2 South Africa – Equal treatment and democratic rights ......................... 158 6.1.3 Democratisation and empowerment – Accountable and responsive governance ............................................................................................ 164 6.2 Dynamic community structures and relevance of traditional institutions ...... 176 6.2.1 Botswana ............................................................................................... 176 6.2.2 South Africa .......................................................................................... 186 6.3 Power base and legitimacy of the formal stakeholders at local level ............ 194 6.3.1 Background and context ....................................................................... 194 6.3.2 Legitimacy and support in the context of the institutional pluralism ... 198 6.3.3 Power and authority in Botswana and South Africa ............................. 210 Part IV: The Essence And Major Lessons Of The Institutional Pluralism ...... 218 7 The implications of pluralistic structures in Southern Africa ............................... 218 7.1 Theoretical assumptions and local realities in Botswana and South Africa .. 218 7.2 The legal framework, the set-up and the research findings – A question of agency or structure? ....................................................................................... 227 7.3 Potential long-term impact on local development and rural transformation .. 232 Part V: Conclusion, Outlook and Prospects ........................................................ 242 8 Digression: Institutional pluralism and cross-border rule..................................... 242 9 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................. 261 Zusammenfassung .................................................................................................... 269 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 273 Register of court cases .............................................................................................. 291 Annex: Field work interviews .................................................................................. 292 iv Overview tables Table 1: Overview of government and traditional institutions ................................... 56 Table 2: Performance of local actors ........................................................................ 106 Table 3: Responsiveness of local actors ................................................................... 141 Table 4: Assessment of participation and consultation ............................................ 142 Table 5: Levels of trust ............................................................................................. 200 v List of abbreviations ANC African National Congress BBK Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela BBKTA Bakgatla-ba-Kgafela Tribal Administration BDP Botswana Democratic Party CLaRA Communal Land Rights Act COBACO Concerned Bakgatla Anti-Corruption Organisation CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa CONTRALESA Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa CPA Communal Property Association DDC District Development Committee