EFFECTS OF TEA PRODUCTION ON WOMEN'S WORK AND LABOUR ALLOCATIONS IN EMBU DISTRICT By ESTHER I. NJIRO or N A thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts (Anthropology) at, Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi. August, 1990 IBB alUVBB3U> DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for an academic award in any other University. fllA Esther Igandu Njiro (Mrs) Dateff) - fl^lO This thesis has been submitted with my approval as a University Supervisor. Di. J.R.A. Wembah - Rashid DL 30- og*^ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It la impossible to name all those who contributed to the completion of this work: the many people who welcomed me warmly Into their homes,individuals who spent many hours discussing the various effects of tea production and other forms of commercialized agriculture 1n their lives and all personnel of KTDA head office and the field staff. To all of them I owe my gratitude. There are those Individuals whose efforts stand out In this work and to whom I am greatly indebted. They Include Dr. J.A.R. Wembah-Rashid who was an enthusiastic supervisor of this thesis since its inception. This work gained tremendously from his constructive criticism, unfailing assistance and encouragement. Although I stubbornly insisted on the last word,he never lost hia patience. Dr. N. Kipury for her deligence In critically assessing this study and making very useful suggestions. Dr. Annne Fleuret for her enthusiasm at the onset of this study through her stimulating comments and suggestions. Dr. Pepe Roberts of University of Liverpool for invaluable key references an dher critical mind 1n examining the first drafts of this study's proposal. The entire body of academic staff of the Institute of African Studies for teaching me. Dr. E.H.N. N.ieru, Dr. T. Zeleza, Dr. S. Khasiani, Dr. T. Kanogo, Ms. K. Adagala deserve to be mentioned. Mr. E.B.N. Rachuonyo who sacrificed his free time to type and retype this work. 1 Special thanks to the University of Nairobi for granting me a scholarship and research funds without which this study could have been impossible. In this connection, I am grateful to professor G. S. Were, the director of the Institute of African Studies for his continued inspiration and intelligent guidance throughout the course. The secretaries of Teachers Service Commission and Kenya National Examination Council for granting me study leave which enabled me to attend the course. Finally^ I wish to thank my husband and children most sincerely for what they very well know. Esther I. Njirp ii i i TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . i TABLE OF CONTENTS iii f LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF TABLES viii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ix MEANING OF KIEMBU NAMES x ABSTRACT xii 1. CHAPTER ONE 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 7 1.3 Rationale 17 r 1.4 Objectives 20 2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 22 2.1.1. Introduction 22 2.1.2 Studies about Embu People 23 2.1.3 Significance of Women's Work 25 2.1.4 Women's Work and Dependency Theories 28 2.1.5 Gender and Division of Labour 32 2.1.6 Women's Work and Control of Resources 40 2.1.7 Cash Crops and Women's Workload 45 2.1.8 Women's Work: its economic importance 49 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 52 2.2.1 Introduction 52 iii i i 2.2.2 Nature versus Culture theories 52 2.2.3.1 Women in Development School 58 2.2.3.2. Women in Development School: I^s Limitations 62 2.2.4 Marxist Perspective 65 2.2.5 Reproduction Model 70 2.3. HYPOTHESES 79 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 81 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Stages of this Study 81 3.2.1 Archival and Library Research 81 3.2.2 Research Site and Target Population 82 3.2.3 Sampling Procedure 91 3.2.3.1. Systematic Sampling 91 3.2.3.2. Units of Observation 94 3.2.4 Data Collection Techniques 101 3.2.5 Data analysis and presentation 111 3.3 Operational definitions of variables 112 3.4 Limitations of this study 120 CHAPTER FOUR: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 122 4.1 Introduction 122 4.2 Origins and Socio-economic history of Embu people 123 4.2.1 The place of Women in Embu Socio- economic structures 125 4.2.1.1 Sexual Relations 125 4.2.1.2 Marriage 126 4.2.1.3 The Cultural Value of Children among the Embu 134 iv i i T. 2. 1. 4 The Concept of Household and Family 136 4. 2. 2 Division of labour and patterns of work allocations 138 4. 2. 2. 1 The Subordination of Embu Women 147 4.3 Integration of Embu economy into market economy 150 « 4. 3. 1 Effects of Colonial Land Tenure on Embu Women 152 4. 3. 2 Effects of commercialization of agriculture on Embu women 155 4. 3. 3 Impact of Wage Labour on Embu Women 158 4. 3. 4 Impact of Educational Policy on Embu Women 160 CHAPTER FIVE: THE FINDINGS 171 5. 1 Introduction 1^2 «r 5. 2. 1 Factors that led Embu people to start tea production 5. 2. 2 The Role of KTDA in Tea production in Embu 5. 3 Characteristics of tea farming households 181 5. 4 Land and labour factors in tea production 195 5. 5 Women's work and their labour allocations 204 5. 5. 1 Do women feel that they are overworked ? 206 5. 5. 2 Comparative views of women's leisure 208 5.6 Effects of Commercialization of Animal Husbandry on Women's Work 5.7 Interrelationship between tea and other activities 215 CHAPTER SIX: CONSEQUENCES OF INTENSIVE WORK ON GENDER ROLE RELATIONS IN EMBU 216 6. 1 Introduction 216 6. 2 Sampled Women access to and control over 217 resources v i i 6. 3 How control of income by men affects women 225 6. 3. 1 Conflicts among members of households 230 6. 3. 2 Sorcery 233 6. 3. 3 Effects of increased workload on women's food production, home maintenance and child care 237 6. 4 Aspects of differentiation that determine the extent to which increased workload affects women 244 6. 5 Why do women continue working despite inadequate remunerations ? 251 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 258 7. 1 Introduction 258 7. 2 Summary of the findings 258 7. 3 Recommendations 268 BIBLIOGRAPHY 271 APPENDICES 295 vi i i LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE I Location of Embu District 4 II Embu District: Simplified Agro-Ecological Zones 6 III The Lie of the Land (Cartoon) 26 IV Embu District: Administrative Boundaries 84 V Mungania Leaf/Factory Area of Operation 85 VI Instructions on Tipping and Plucking 100 VII The Organization of the Tea Industry in Kenya 115 VIII Structure of Administration in KTDA ' 162 IX Structure of Leaf Collection Department 163 X Structure of Workers Hierarchy of Mungania Tea Factory 164 XI Photograph of a Farmyard of a Typical Tea Grower 175 XII Map Showing the 39 KTDA Factories in Kenya 177 XIII Photograph of a Loaded KTDA Truck 178 XIV Photograph of Tea Nursery 185 XV Photograph of Pegged Tea 186 XVI Photograph of Tea Pluckers at Work 190 XVII Photograph of Tea Growers in Buying Centres 192 XVIII Photograph of a Tea Pruner at Work 196 XIX Comparing Tea and Coffee Farming Activities 199 XX Rural Food Production by Women 202 XXI Rural Household Chores for Sampled Women 203 XXII (a) & (b) Traditional and Contractual Labour 225 vii i i LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Age-set Composition of Runyenjes (Manyatta) Division 1988 Population 87 2. District Labour Force and Employment Profile 1987 - 1993 88 3. Active Tea Growers in Embu by January 1990 90 4. Number, Name/Size of Respondents 92 5. Actual Composition of Household Types in this Study Sample 94 6. Work Arrangements and the Typical Division of Labour in Pre-colonial Embu 141 7. Pre-colonial Agricultural Circle and Work Patterns in Embu 146 8. The Percentage of Females in Wage Sector Occupation: A Case of KTDA in Embu 165 9. Barriers of Wage Labour Opportunities as found in Mungania Tea Factory and Leaf Base Female Workers 168 10. Typology of Households adopted by Cambridge Group 170 11. Payments to Tea Growers in Kenya 180 12. 1987/88 Leaf Yield Statistics in Kilogramsos Made Tea (MT) 193 13. Months of Planting and Pruning According to Area 195 14. Average Hours per Person per Day in Work Activities by Sex and Age observed around Thigingi in Embu District 23rd Nov. - 28th Feb. 1990 211 15. Principle Income Generating Activities of the Sample 214 16. Material Inventory: Purchased Items per Sampled Household and Persons Associated with them 229 17. Issues of Household Financial Management 252 viii i i / ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAWORD Association of African Women for Research and Development FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GEMA Gikuyu.Embu and Meru Association GNP Gross National Product ILO International Labour Office KTDA Kenya Tea Development Authority N.d. No date SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists U.K. United Kingdom USA United States of America WID Women in Development YWCA Young Women's Christian Association ix i i MEANING OF KIEMBU WORDS Agwimi - Professional hunters. Those who stayed away in the wild hunting and thriving on venison from wild animals. Aka a mitaa - Street Women Athi - Hunters who engaged in hunting destructive wild animals such as those who destroyed crops.