Democratising Communication: Media Activism and Media Reform in Zimbabwe Witwatersrand University School of Literature, Language and Media Studies PhD (Media Studies) By Alfandika Last 148306 This thesis is submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Studies i Declaration I, Last Alfandika, hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Studies at the University of Witwatersrand has not been submitted for a Degree at this or any other University, that it is my own work in design and execution, and that all reference material contained herein has been duly acknowledged. ………………………… …………………………. Signature ii Abstract Media policy reform in Zimbabwe should be able to liberate rather than limit the public sphere long “captured” by narrow interest of the ruling class before and after independence in 1980. While some authors have regarded media activism as critical in the creation of the public sphere, not much is known beyond this particular materialistic aspect. The wider importance of media activism to the fight for media reform and democracy in Zimbabwe is ignored in literature. In addition, media activism in Zimbabwe has not been adequately documented leading to little understanding of the practice. Against this background, the study seeks to ascertain the degree and extent to which media activism has led to media reform and democratisation in Zimbabwe through the lens of Gramsci’s theory of hegemony and the Social movement theory of Resource Mobilisation (RMT). Using personal interviews, the examination of media activists and government documents, and journalists’ articles, this study examines the extent to which media activism influences media reform and democracy in Zimbabwe. The study argues that major debates over the democratisation of communication in Zimbabwe are pitted between the hegemonic government and the counter-hegemonic media reform activists sponsored by Western based donors such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Article 19 among others. The highlights of the debate indicate differences in conceptualisation of “media democracy” between the the state and media reform activist organisations. While media reform activists define media democracy from a transplanted Westernised democracy concept, the government rejects such deterministic approaches to media democracy and argues that media democracy in Africa must not be tied to Western manufactured models but must be informed by the socio-cultural, economic and political needs of the society. The government perceives Western funded media reform activists as conduits for regime change. In the end, the study noted a number of media reforms influenced by media reform activists. However, these reforms did not democratise communication in Zimbabwe as they were either not implemented or appropriated by the government which uses them to further consolidate its hegemonic power. The research recommends that media reform activists and the government should seek a common understanding on issues which involve democratised communication. iii Dedication For Ruvimbo, Takunda, Munashe, Mufaro and Mukudzei, and those not yet born ivai Mukundi iv Acknowledgement There is no one who walks alone in the journey of life. It is because of this that at this moment, I need to acknowledge those that walked with me, and besides me, those that I have met to share a thought with and those that care so much to listen or read my work and gave it a meaningful direction. This thesis would not have been completed without the support of several people whose interventions have to be acknowledged. I am grateful to my supervisor, Dr Ufuoma Akpojivi. His insightful comments, guidance and support helped me through the most challenging moments of this thesis. I wish to express my gratitude for the support I received from Dr Pedzisai Ruhanya during the initial stages of the research. I’m grateful to my greatest friend, Gift Gwindingwe, for encouraging me to trudge on even when everything seemed bleak and impossible. I would like to pass my greatest appreciation to Dr Lyton Ncube. I can’t thank him enough for his tremendous support, motivation and guidance. The Humanities Postgraduate Centre at the University of Witwatersrand, provided a conducive academic atmosphere for reading and writing. Many thanks go my colleagues at the Centre, especially to Mr Job Mwaura and Cde Fiona Chawana. I would also like thank Zimbabwean policymakers, media reform activists, journalists and government officials who granted me time for interviews despite their busy schedules. My beloved family, especially my beloved wife Vimbai Chamisa, was a pillar of moral strength throughout my academic journey. She stood studiously by me. I wouldn’t have survived without the inspiration and support from my brother Millias Zinyambi. I say to you, “May the Almighty God Bless you all”. v Table of Contents Declaration………………………………………………………………… ........... ii Abstract………………………………………………………………………....... iii Dedication………………………………………………………………………..... iv Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………….... v Table of Contents………………………………………………………………..... vii List of Acronyms………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures......................................................................................................... xi List of Appendices..................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 : Introduction and background of the study…………………… 1 Research aim and Objectives............................................................. 4 Justification of the study.................................................................... 6 Research methodology and design..................................................... 7 Qualitative methodology to the study of Zimbabwean media democracy, activism and reform........................................................ 8 Research Paradigm............................................................................. 10 Research design................................................................................. 11 Population and sample selection........................................................ 13 Data collection.................................................................................... 17 Data presentation, analysis and interpretation procedures................. 21 Validity and reliability....................................................................... 25 Ethical considerations........................................................................ 25 Thesis outline..................................................................................... 26 Conclusion......................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2 : Literature review……………………………………………… 28 Introduction………………………………………………………… 28 Media policy and regulation discourse.............................................. 28 Public interest..................................................................................... 39 Democratising communication in Zimbabwe: a delinking agenda of Western and African ideologies.................................................... 44 Reimagining Media Activism............................................................ 54 Media reform..................................................................................... 62 vi Conclusion......................................................................................... 64 Chapter 3: Theoretical foundations.................................................................. 66 Introduction....................................................................................... 66 Exploring media democratisation discourse through Gramscian lens. 66 Democratizing communication through Social movement theory…. 73 Resource Mobilisation Theory……………………………………..... 75 Conclusion............................................................................................ 78 Chapter 4: History and development of media policy in Zimbabwe……… 80 Introduction............................................................................................ 80 From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: the political economy of the Media....... 81 Towards media policy change: a decade of tumult …........................... 93 The land question, nationalism agenda and the media…………………. 100 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 105 Chapter 5: Media policy and regulation contestations in Zimbabwe…………… 107 Introduction............................................................................................... 107 Media regulatory framework in Zimbabwe............................................... 108 Appointment of media regulatory board………………………………… 109 Radio broadcasting and licencing in Zimbabwe………………………….. 122 Community radio licencing in Zimbabwe at cross roads.......................... 129 The paradox of media regulation: Implication for statutory and self-regulation……………………………………………………….. 136 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 143 Chapter 6: Media activism, reform and democracy in Zimbabwe……………….. 145 Introduction ................................................................................................ 145 From media activism to media reform......................................................