TRANSFORMATION OF INTIMACY AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN A TRANSITIONAL SOCIAL CONTEXT IN TEHRAN, IRAN SAMANE ETESAMI THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY FACULTY OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2017 Abstract Making a desired intimate relationship is a challenging issue among young men and women in contemporary urban Iran. The current research examined how the couples’ intimacy in intimate relationships is related with the status of modern transformation of intimacy. This research aimed to examine how Giddens’s (1992) theory of transformation of intimacy would be applicable in the transitional urban context of Iran, viz. in Tehran. An online research design and a partially mixed methods approach was used in this study. The quantitative results derived from completed online questionnaires by 567 men and women showed a positive correlation between the level of an individual’s transformed attitude towards intimate relationships and gender roles and the level of women’s sexual agency. In addition, there was a positive correlation between the level of women’s sexual agency and the level of actual intimacy among partners. The combination of quantitative and qualitative results however, showed that the transformed intimacy has not been completely perceived or adhered to by individuals, rather a combination of transformed and stereotypical values were practiced by the respondents. The in-depth interviews amongst 37 male and female respondents revealed that men and women treated the transformation of intimacy selectively and based it on their own benefits. Theoretical dissection suggests that the incomplete process of transformed intimacy in the context of the study could be explained by three sources: first, the feminist perspective of the interrelatedness of the public and private domains in the society, and the prevalence of patriarchal discourse in personal relationships. Second: the condition of the transitional social context in which inconsistency between traditional values and new needs are dominant, and third: the existence of the market logic in intimate life. ii Accordingly, the theoretical discussion suggested that Giddens’s (1992) theory of transformation of intimacy is not totally applicable in a transitional social urban context of Iran, viz. in Tehran. iii Abstrak Menjalin hubungan intim yang diingini adalah satu isu yang mencabar di kalangan golongan muda lelaki dan wanita di kawasan bandar kontemporari di Iran.. Penyelidikan ini menyiasat bagaimana keintiman pasangan dalam hubungan intim adalah berkaitan dengan status transformasi moden keintiman. Penyelidikan ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji bagaimana teori Giddens (1992) berhubung transformasi keintiman diguna pakai dalam konteks bandar yang melalui peralihan dalam konteks Iran di Tehren. Suatu rekabentuk kajian dalam talian yang menggunakan kaedah mixed methods digunakan dalam kajian ini. Keputusan kuantitatif yang diperolehi daripada soal selidik atas talian daripada 567 lelaki dan wanita membuktikan bahawa korelasi positif ditemui antara tahap perubahan sikap individu terhadap hubungan intim dan peranan gender serta tahap agensi seksual wanita. Di samping itu, terdapat korelasi yang positif antara tahap agensi seksual wanita dan tahap keintiman yang sebenar di kalangan pasangan. Gabungan keputusan kuantitatif dan kualitatif bagaimanapun, menunjukkan bahawa perubahan keintiman tidak sepenuhnya dirasakan atau dipatuhi oleh individu, malah gabungan nilai-nilai keintiman yang berubah dan nilai-nilai stereotaip diamalkan oleh responden. Dalam temu bual dengan 37 responden lelaki dan wanita didapatibahawa lelaki dan wanita mengamalkan transformasi keintiman secara selektif berdasarkan faedahnya kepadadiri mereka sendiri. Diseksi teoretikal mencadangkan bahawa proses perubahan keintiman yang tidak lengkap yang diperhatikan dalam konteks kajian ini boleh dijelaskan dengan tiga sumber berikut: pertama, perspektif feminis mengenai saling-kaitnya arena publik dan peribadi (private) dalam masyarakat, dan kelaziman wacana patriarki dalam hubungan peribadi. Kedua: keadaan konteks peralihan sosial di mana percanggahan di antara nilai- iv nilai tradisional dan keperluan baru adalah dominan, dan ketiga: kewujudan logik pasaran dalam kehidupan intim. Oleh itu perbincangan teori mencadangkan bahawa teori Giddens mengenai transformasi keintiman tidak dapat terpakai secara menyeluruh dalam konteks peralihan sosial bandar di Tehran, Iran. v Acknowledgments I want to thank my father and my mother for their patience, without them, I would never be able to finish this research. I would also like to thank all friends and colleagues who helped me in organizing this research and in exploring the issues. I would like to thank my supervisors Associate Professor Dr. Shanthi Thambiah and Associate Professor Dr. Wong Yut Lin for all their intellectual and methodological support and supervision. I dedicate this research to my dear “Bahman Riazifar” for his generous presence in my life; with him, I profoundly experience a sense of intimacy and equality in a pure relationship. vi Table of Contents Abstract ii Abstrak iv Acknowledgement vi Table of Content vii List of Figures xii List of Tables xiii CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Statement of Problem 1 1.2 Research Questions 2 1.3 Research Objectives 2 1.4 Purpose of Study 3 1.5 Scope of Study 3 1.5.1 Population of Contemporary Iran 3 1.5.2 Patriarchy and Traditional Social Norms 4 1.5.3 Judicial System and Family Law 6 1.5.4 Sexuality and Gender Policy 8 1.5.5 Transformation in Gender Relations and Sexuality 10 1.6 Significance of Study 14 1.7 Limitation of Study 15 1.8 Organization of Chapters 17 CHAPTER 2: Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 18 2.1 Definition and Concept of Modernity 18 2.1.1 Theories of Modernity 20 2.2 Definition and Concept of Transitional Society 23 2.2.1 Theories of Transitional Society 24 2.2.2 Studies of Transitional Society and Social Change 27 2.2.3 Studies of Sexuality in a Transitional Society in Iran 32 2.3 Definition and Concept of Intimacy in Intimate Relationships 36 2.3.1 Theories of Intimacy in Intimate Relationships 38 2.3.1.1 Intimacy as a Discourse 38 vii 2.3.1.1 (a) Individual Capacity 39 2.3.1.1 (b) Quality of Relationships 40 2.3.1.1 (c) Intimacy as an Interaction 40 2.3.1.2 Historical Changes in Family, Sexuality and Intimacy 41 2.3.2 Studies of Intimacy in Intimate Relationship 45 2.3.2.1 Couples’ Intimacy and Sexual Relationship 47 2.3.3 Studies of Couples’ Intimacy and Sexual Relationship in Iran 48 2.4 Definition and Concept of Transformation of Intimacy 50 2.4.1 Feminist Critiques of Transformation of Intimacy 54 2.4.2 Studies of Transformation of Intimacy 59 2.5 Definition and Concept of Women's Sexual Agency 64 2.5.1 Studies of Women's Sexual Agency 68 2.6 Definition and Concept of Attitude towards Relationship and Gender Roles 74 2.6.1 Studies of Patriarchal Gender Stereotypes in Gender Relationship and Sexuality 75 2.6.1.1 Couples' Attitudes of Gender Stereotypes and Relationship's Intimacy 80 2.6.2 Studies of Gendered Stereotypes and Sexual Behaviour in Iran 82 2.7 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework of the Study 83 CHAPTER 3: Methodology and Methods 88 3.1 Methodology 88 3.2 Research Design 89 3.2.1 Partially Mixed Methods; Concurrent Dominant Status 92 3.3 Research Procedure 93 3.4 Research Sampling 94 3.4.1 Selection of the Study Population 94 3.4.2 Sampling of Quantitative Phase 95 3.4.3 Sampling of Qualitative Phase 98 3.5 Research Instrument 100 3.5.1 Online Questionnaire 100 3.5.2 Online Interview 101 3.6 Research Scales 101 viii 3.6.1 Attitudes Regarding Relationships and Gender Roles 102 3.6.2 Women's Sexual Agency (Women's Questions) 107 3.6.3 Women's Sexual Agency (Men's Questions) 111 3.6.4 Intimacy in Intimate Relationships 113 3.6.5 Measures in Qualitative Interview 116 3.7 Quantitative Data Analysis 117 3.7.1 Validity of Quantitative Data 118 3.7.1.1 Standard Scales 119 3.7.1.2 Pilot Test 119 3.7.2 Reliability of Quantitative Data 120 3.7.2.1 Coefficient Alpha Cronbach 121 3.8 Qualitative Data Analysis 123 3.8.1 Validity of Qualitative Result 124 3.8.1.1 Spending Enough Time with Participants 124 3.8.1.2 Multiple Sources of Data 125 3.8.1.3 Peer Review or Debriefing 125 3.8.2 Reliability of Qualitative Results 125 3.8.2.1 Familiarization with Data 126 3.8.2.2 Generate the Initial Codes 127 3.8.2.3 Searching for Themes 127 3.8.2.4 Review, Refine and Finalize Themes 128 CHAPTER 4: Results 130 4.1 Research Objective One 131 4.1.1 Quantitative Results 132 4.1.1.1 Univariate and Multivariate Results 132 4.1.1.2 Regression Results 136 4.1.2 Qualitative Results 137 4.1.2.1 Duty in Life Expenses and Couples' Responsibilities 138 4.1.2.1 (a) Women's Answers on Duty in Life’s’ Expenses and Couples’ ix Responsibilities 138 4.1.2.1 (b) Men's Answers on Duty in Life’s’ Expenses and Couples’ Responsibilities 140 4.1.2.2 Women's Sexual Agency 143 4.1.2.2 (a) Women's Answers on Women’s Sexual Agency 143 4.1.2.2 (b) men's Answers on Women’s Sexual Agency 146 4.1.2.3 Sexual Relationship's Stereotypes; Premarital Relationships 150 4.1.2.3 (a) Women's Answers on Sexual Relationship's Stereotypes; Premarital Relationships 150 4.1.2.3 (b) Men's Answers on Sexual Relationship's Stereotypes; Premarital Relationships 155 4.2 Research Objective Two 161 4.2.1 Univariate and Multivariate Results 162 4.2.2 Regression Results 165 4.3 Research Objective Three 166 4.3.1 Univariate and Multivariate Results 167 4.3.2 Regression Results