Psychological Disorders The same behavior may be deemed normal under some circumstances but abnormal in others. What is Normal vs. What is Abnormal Abnormal behavior is based on a combination of : 1) Unusualness – experienced by only a few; 2) Social deviance – All societies establish standards or social norms that define socially acceptable behaviors. Deviation from these norms is often used as a criterion for labeling behavior as abnormal; 3) Emotional distress – i.e., anxiety or depression are considered abnormal when inappropriate, excessive, or prolonged relative to the person’s situation; 4) Maladaptive behavior – Behavior is maladaptive when it causes personal distress, is self- defeating, or is associated with significant health, social, or occupational problems. 5) Dangerousness – Violent or dangerous behavior that is outside the sanctioned context, that behavior could be viewed as being abnormal; and 6) Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality – i.e., Hallucinations – involves distorted perceptions of reality; Delusions – fixed but unfounded beliefs. Cultural Bases of Abnormal Behavior Psychologists are now taking into account the cultural context when making judgments about abnormal behavior. Culture-bound syndromes – refers to psychological disorders occurring in only one or a few cultures. MODELS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR: Early Beliefs – From ancient times through the Middle Ages, people thought that those displaying abnormal behavior were controlled by supernatural forces or possessed by demonic spirits. The Medical Model – Is based on the belief that abnormal behavior patterns represent mental illnesses that have a biological basis and can be classified by their particular characteristics, or symptoms. Psychological Models – The first major psychological model of abnormal behavior was the psychodynamic model developed by Sigmund Freud. Freud believed that abnormal behavior arises from __________________ conflicts during childhood that remain unresolved. Psychological symptoms are merely the outward expressions of inner turmoil; unconscious conflicts are at the root of abnormal behavior patterns. The Behavioral model is based on the belief that most forms of abnormal behavior are __________________ in the same ways that normal behavior is _________________. The Humanistic model argues that human beings possess an intrinsic ability to make conscious choices and to strive toward self-actualization. Therefore, abnormal behavior develops when people encounter ____________________ on the path toward personal growth or self-actualization. The Cognitive model believes that __________________ or distorted thinking leads to emotional problems and maladaptive behavior. The Sociocultural Model argues that abnormal behavior may have more to do with social ills or failures of _________________ than with problems within the individual. Socioculltural theorists believe that the stress of coping with poverty and social disadvantage can eventually take its toll on mental health. The Biopsychosocial Model argue that most forms of abnormal behavior are not simply products of biology or environment alone; rather, they result from complex interactions of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. An example of the biopsychosocial model is the diathesis-stress model. According to the diathesis-stress model, certain people have a vulnerability or predisposition called a diathesis, which increases their risks of developing a particular disorder. WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS? Are a distinctive patterns of abnormal behavior that involves a disturbances of mood, behavior, thought processes, or perception that result in significant personal distress or impaired functioning. Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders refer to a class of psychological disorders characterized by excessive or inappropriate anxiety reactions. The major types are: phobias, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive- compulsive disorder. Phobias are irrational or excessive fears of particular objects or situations. The three types are: social phobia, specific phobia, and agoraphobia. Persons with social phobia have an intense fear of social interactions. Persons with specific phobia have an excessive fear of specific situations or objects. Persons with agoraphobia have a fear venturing into open places or going out in public. Panic Disorders is a type of anxiety disorder involving repeated episodes of sheer terror called panic attacks. Panic attacks are characterized by intense physical symptoms that includes profuse sweating, numbness or tingling, and pounding of the heart. These symptoms may lead people to think they are having a heart attack, or are losing control. Generalized Anxiety Disorder – Refer to persons that experience persistent anxiety that is not tied to any particular object or situation. The person seems to worry incessantly. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – Refer to persons that have persistent obsessions and /or compulsions. Obsessions are nagging, intrusive thoughts, that the person is unable to control. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors the person is compelled to perform again and again. CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS - Biological factors – One possibility is that biochemical changes in the ________________ involving neurotransmitter imbalances trigger a kind of internal alarm system that induces feelings of panic in susceptible people. Psychological Factors – Some phobias may be learned through classical conditioning in which a previously neutral or benign stimulus becomes paired with an aversive stimulus. People with high levels of anxiety sensitivity, or fear of fear (phobophobia) itself, may overreact to anxiety symptoms, which in turn can lead to escalating anxiety that culminates in a full-fledged panic attack. Anxiety disorders reflect the interplay of biological and psychological factors. Dissociative and Somatoform Disorders Dissociative and Somatoform disorders are often grouped together because of the classic view that they involve psychological defenses against anxiety. Dissociative disorders involve problems with _______________ or changes in consciousness or self- identity that fracture the continuity or wholeness of an individual’s personality. In dissociative identity disorder commonly called multiple personality or split personality, two or more distinct personalities exist within the same individual. The dominant personality may be unaware of the existence of these alternates or of events experienced by other identities. Dissociative Amnesia – People with dissociative amnesia experience a loss of memory for information about themselves or their life experiences. The absence of any physical cause for their amnesia suggests that the disorder is psychological in nature. CAUSES OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS: Dissociative amnesia may represent an attempt to disconnect or dissociate one’s conscious state from awareness of traumatic experiences or other sources of psychological pain or conflict. Somatoform Disorders – Refer to persons that have physical ailments or complaints that cannot be explained medically. Conversion Disorder – Refers to persons that suffer a loss of physical function, such as loss of movement in a limb (hysterical paralysis), loss of vision (hysterical blindness), or loss of feeling in a hand or arm (anesthesia). Yet there is no physical cause that can account for these symptoms. Hypochondriasis – Refers to persons preoccupied with the idea that there is something terribly wrong with their health. They attribute their physical complaints or symptoms to a serious underlying disease. Causes of Somatoform Disorders According to Freud, the hysterical symptom (loss of movement in a limb) is the outward sign of an unconscious dynamic struggle between opposing motives. The ego seeks to protect the self from the flood of anxiety that would occur if these unacceptable impulses were to become fully conscious. Secondary gain is the reward value of having a psychological or physical symptom, such as release from ordinary responsibilities. Mood Disorders Mood Disorders involves persons that have a persistent or severe disturbances of mood; not just an occasional up and down swing. Major Depressive Disorder – Is the most common type of depressive disorder, characterized by periods of downcast mood, feelings of worthlessness, and loss of interest in pleasurable activities. When left untreated, it can last months, even a year or more. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of major depression that involves a recurring pattern of winter depressions followed by elevations of mood in the spring and summer. Dysthymic disorder (dysthymia) is a relatively mild but chronic form of depression. Bipolar Disorder – Are characterized by alternating moods that shift between euphoric feelings and depression. The two major types of bipolar disorders are: bipolar disorder and cyclothymic. Persons with bipolar disorder experience mood swings between periods of manic episodes and periods of depression. Cyclothymic disorder is characterized by a pattern of milder mood swings than those seen in bipolar disorder. Causes of Mood Disorders Psychological Factors – The classic psychodynamic theory espoused by Freud held that depression involves anger turned inward against the self. Cognitive theorists focus on how our thoughts and interpretations of events contribute to emotional disorders such as depression. Another psychological model of depression, the learned helplessness